In the previous chapter we examined the factors that influence the amount and type of transfer in third or additional language production. In this chapter we shift the focus to the type of linguistic information that can be transferred from one or more non-native language to another, with special reference to lexis, phonetics and phonology, morphology and syntax.

Lexis

Non-native linguistic influence is particularly visible in the area of lexis, where traces of non-target information are mostly overt and therefore easily recognizable. One of the most comprehensive studies on non-native linguistic influence and lexical choices was conducted by Ringbom (1987) in Finland, a country with two official languages: Finnish, a Finno-Ugric language, and Swedish, a Germanic language. Finland is widely considered an ideal location for research on non-native language influence due to the sociocultural and educational homogeneity of its people and the language combination that it offers. According to a 1982 survey, 93.3% of the population was estimated to be of Finnish L1 while only 6.3% was estimated to be of Swedish L1. Swedish L1 speakers are generally competent speakers of Finnish as an L2, and Finnish L1 speakers are formally taught Swedish in school (Ringbom, 1987). Even though several years have gone by, Finland has maintained a similar proportion of Swedish-speaking Finns in the country.

Ringbom (1987) examined about 11,000 essays written in English (L3) by Finnish students of Finnish L1 and of Swedish L1 enrolled in an English national exam. He identified several instances of non-native linguistic influence which he broadly categorized as instances of borrowing or instances of lexical transfer (see Table 3.1).