Element contents
Egypt and the Levant
Networks and Negotiations in the Bronze Age
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 23 July 2026
Summary
Egypt and the Levant witnessed complex transformations across the Bronze Age. Beyond the rise and collapse of powerful cities and states were the long-distance connectivities that enabled the movements of people and animals, and the interlinked exchanges of commodities and ideas. By the Late Bronze Age, these connectivities exhibited markers of globalisation. This Element considers how such markers emerged and developed in the preceding centuries. Focusing on the third to mid-second millennium BCE, it brings together recent research on socio-political developments and cross-cultural interactions to give an overview of the transforming networks linking Old to early New Kingdom Egypt and EB III to LB I Levantine communities. In doing so, the Element incorporates approaches that move away from imperialist structures of exchange to consider how dynamic networks were negotiated and maintained across periods of socio-political change.
Information
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781009419949Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 20 August 2026
References
Abd el-Maksoud, M. (1998). Tell Heboua (1981–1991). Enquête archéologique sur la deuxième péreiode intermédiaire et la Nouvel Empire à l’extrémité orientale du Delta. Paris: Éd. Recherches sur les civilisations.Google Scholar
Aharoni, Y. (1967). The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography. Philadelphia: Westminster Press.Google Scholar
Ahmed, M. H. M., Hashem, S.A.E., Hulková, L. and Wodzińska, A. (2018). Egyptian Salvage Excavations at Tell el-Mansheya. Ägypten und Levante 28: 25–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahrens, A. (2020). Aegyptiaca in der nördlichen Levante: Eine Studie zur Kontextualisierung und Rezeption ägyptischer und ägyptisierender Objekte in der Bronzezeit. Leuven: Peeters.10.2307/j.ctv1q26phgCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahrens, A. and Kopetzky, K. (2021). Difficult Times and Drastic Solutions: The Diffusion of Looted Middle Kingdom Objects Found in the Northern Levant, Egypt and Nubia. In Bietak, M. and Prell, S., eds., The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. IV: Changing Clusters and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 253–313.Google Scholar
Albright, W. F. (1934). The Vocalization of the Egyptian Syllabic Orthography. New Haven: Kraus Reprint.Google Scholar
Albright, W. F. (1964). The Eighteenth-Century Princes of Byblos and the Chronology of Middle Bronze. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 176: 38–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, J. P. (2008). The Historical Inscription of Khnumhotep at Dahshur: Preliminary Report. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 352: 29–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allon, N. (2007). Seth is Baal – Evidence from the Egyptian Script. Ägypten und Levante 17: 15–22.10.1553/AEundL17s15CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altenmüller, H. (2015). Zwei Annalenfragmente aus dem frühen Mittleren Reich. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.Google Scholar
Anthony, F. B. (2017). Foreigners in Ancient Egypt: Theban Tomb Paintings from the Early Eighteenth Dynasty (1550–1372 BC). London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Arbuckle, C. (2024). Lebanese Cedar, Skeuomorphs, Coffins, and Status in Ancient Egypt. Arts 13(6): 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts13060163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, D. (1982). Keramikbearbeitung in Dahschur 1976–1981. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 38: 25–65.Google Scholar
Arnold, D., Arnold, F., and Allen, S. (1995). Canaanite Imports at Lisht, the Middle Kingdom Capital of Egypt. Ägypten und Levante 5: 13–32.Google Scholar
Arnold, E., Greenfield, H., Hartman, G. et al. (2018). Provisioning the Early Bronze Age City of Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, Israel: Isotopic Analyses of Domestic Livestock Management Patterns. Open Quaternary 4(1): 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, E., Greenfield, H., Hartman, G. et al. (2025). An Isotopic Perspective on Equid Selection in Cult at Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, Israel. PLoS One 20(7): e0326421. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aston, D. A. (2004). Tell el-Dabʻa XII: A Corpus of Late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Pottery, 2 parts. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Aston, D. A. (2012). Cypriot Pottery and its Imitations from Hebwa IV. In Gruber, M., Aḥituv, S., Lehmann, G. and Talshir, Z., eds., All the Wisdom of the East: Studies in Near Eastern Archaeology and History in Honor of Eliezer D. Oren. Fribourg/Göttingen: Academic Press/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 13–56.Google Scholar
Aston, D. A. and Bader, B. (2009). Fishes, Ringstands, Nudes and Hippos – A Preliminary Report on the Hyksos Palace Pit Complex L81. Ägypten und Levante 19: 19–89.10.1553/AEundL19s19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aston, D. A. and Bietak, M. (2012). Tell el-Dabʻa VIII: The Classification and Chronology of Tell el-Yahudiya Ware. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkins, S. and Yekutieli, Y. (2023). Egypto-Levantine Connectivity between the Shephelah and the Negev Highlands: New Insights from Ceramic Assemblage Profiles at Tel Erani, Mitzpe Sde Hafir, and Yeroḥam–Naḥal Avnon. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 37: 39–62.Google Scholar
Autiero, S. and Cobb, M. A. (2022). Introduction: Utilizing Globalization and Transculturality for the Study of the Pre-Modern World. In Auterio, S. and Cobb, M. A., eds., Globalization and Transculturality from Antiquity to the Pre-Modern World. London: Routledge, 1–16.Google Scholar
Bader, B. (2009). Tell el-Dabʻa XIX: Auaris und Memphis im Mitteleren Reich und in der Hyksoszeit. Vienna: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Bader, B. (2011). Preliminary Observations on Ceramic Material found at Herakleopolis Magna (Ehnasya el-Medina). Cahiers de la Céramique Égyptienne 9: 37–69.Google Scholar
Bader, B. (2021). Material Culture and Identities in Egyptology: Towards a Better Understanding of Cultural Encounters and their Influence on Material Culture. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Badreshany, K., Sowada, K., Ownby, M. et al. (2022). The Characterisation of Ceramic Production from the Central Levant and Egyptian Trade in the Pyramid Age. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41: 103309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103309.Google Scholar
Bagh, T. (2013). Tell el-Dabʻa XXIII: Levantine Painted Ware from Egypt and the Levant. Vienna: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Baines, J. (1982). Interpreting Sinuhe. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 68: 31–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baines, J. (1990). Restricted Knowledge, Hierarchy, and Decorum: Modern Perceptions and Ancient Institutions. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 27: 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bard, K. A. and Fattovich, R., eds. (2007). Harbor of the Pharaohs to the Land of Punt: Archaeological Investigations at Mersa/Wadi Gawasis, Egypt, 2001–2005. Naples: Università degli Studi di Napoli ‘L’Orientale’.Google Scholar
Bard, K. A. and Fattovich, R., eds. (2018). Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, J. (2024). Ägäische Wandmalereien aus dem Tuthmosidenpalast von Tell el-Dabʻa I. Die großformatigen Greifen- und Landschaftsdarstellungen von Tell el-Dabʻa/Avaris. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Begon, M. (2016). Nédia, Dia ou bien plutôt Ida? La ‘campagne asiatique’ d’Inti de Deshasha (fin de la Ve dynastie) et le littoral sud de la Palestine durant la seconde moitié du IIIe millénaire Bronze Ancien III. Nehet 5: 1–24.Google Scholar
Ben-Tor, D. (2007a). Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period. Fribourg: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ben-Tor, D. (2007b). Scarabs of Middle Bronze Age Rulers of Byblos. In Bickel, S., Schroer, S., Schurte, R. and Uehlinger, C., eds., Bilder als Quellen: Images as Sources. Studies on Ancient Near Eastern Artefacts and the Bible inspired by the Work of Othmar Keel. Fribourg: Academic Press, 177–88.Google Scholar
Bhabha, H. (1994). Frontlines/Borderposts, Displacements. In Bammer, A., ed., Displacements: Cultural Identities in Question. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 269–72.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (1991). Egypt and Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 281: 27–72.10.2307/1357163CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bietak, M. (1996). Avaris: The Capital of the Hyksos. Recent Excavations at Tell el-Dabʻa. London: British Museum Press.Google Scholar
Bietak, M., ed. (2001–2003). The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. vols. I–II. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2010a). Houses, Palaces and Development of Social Structure in Avaris. In Bietak, M., Czerny, E. and Forstner-Müller, I., eds., Cities and Urbanism in Ancient Egypt: Papers from a Workshop in November 2006 at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 11–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bietak, M. (2010b). The Early Bronze Age III Temple at Tell Ibrahim Awad and its Relevance to the Egyptian Old Kingdom. In Hawass, Z., der Manuelian, P., and Hussein, R. B., eds., Perspectives on Ancient Egypt. Studies in Honor of Edward Brovarski. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 65–77.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2013). Antagonisms in Historical and Radiocarbon Chronology. In Shortland, A. J. and Ramsey, C. Bronk, eds., Radiocarbon and the Chronologies of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 76–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bietak, M. (2019). The Spiritual Roots of the Hyksos Elite: An Analysis of their Sacred Architecture, Part I. In Bietak, M. and Prell, S., eds., The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. I: ASOR Conference Boston 2017 – ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 47–67.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2021a). The End of High Chronology in the Aegean and the Levant? Recent Discussions about the Chronology of the Middle and the Late Bronze Ages in the Eastern Mediterranean: Part II. Bibliotheca Orientalis 78(3–4): 20–56.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2021b). The Spiritual Roots of the Hyksos Elite: An Analysis of their Sacred Architecture, Part II. In Bietak, M. and Prell, S., eds., The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. IV: Changing Clusters and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4th–6th of December 2019. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 121–47.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2023a). Harbour Towns of the Bronze Age: The Examples of Avaris and Byblos. In Franzipane, M., ed., The ‘City’ across Time: Emergence, Developments, and Social, Economic Political, Cultural and Health Impact (Rome, 8–10 June 2022). Rome: Antica Tipographia, 207–51.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2023b). Peru-nefer. In Erskine, A., Hollander, D. B., and Papaconstantinou, A., eds., The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Chichester. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15431.pub2.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2024). The Timespan of Hyksos Rule (15th Dynasty). In Driessen, J. and Fantuzzi, T., eds., Chronos: Stratigraphic Analysis, Pottery Seriation and Radiocarbon Dating in Mediterranean Chronology. Louvain: Presses Universitaires de Louvain, 57–81.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (2025). Why did the Relationship between Egypt and the Minoan World Reach its Zenith in the Era of Hatshepsut and Tuthmosis III? In Marinatos, N., Blakolmer, F., and Platon, L., eds., Pax Minoica Revisited: New Research on Arthur Evans’ Concept of the Political Expansion of Minoan Crete. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 213–51.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. (Forthcoming). The Unexpected Origins of the People behind Hyksos Rule in Egypt.Google Scholar
Bietak, M. and Czerny, E., eds. (2007). The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C., vol. III. Vienna: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.10.1553/0x0007eadaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bietak, M., Math, N., Müller, V. and Jurman, C. (2012/2013). Report on the Excavations of a Hyksos Palace at Tell el-Dabʻa/Avaris (23rd August–15th November 2011). Ägypten und Levante 22–23: 17–53.Google Scholar
Biga, M. (2016). La Syrie et l’Égypte au IIIe millénaire av. J.-C. daprès les archives d’Ebla. Comptes rendus de Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres 2016(2): 691–711.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonacossi, D. M. (2013). The Northern Levant (Syria) during the Middle Bronze Age. In Steiner, M. L. and Killebrew, A. E., eds., The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 414–33.Google Scholar
Bonani, G., Haas, H., Hawass, Z. et al. (2001). Radiocarbon Dates of Old and Middle Kingdom Monuments in Egypt. Radiocarbon 43(3): 1297–320.10.1017/S0033822200038558CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourriau, J., De Meyer, M., Op de Beeck, L., and Vereecken, S. (2005). The Second Intermediate Period and Early New Kingdom at Deir al-Barsha. Ägypten und Levante 15: 101–29.Google Scholar
Brandl, B. (1992). Evidence for Egyptian Colonization in the Southern Coastal Plain and Lowlands of Canaan during the EB I Period. In van den Brink, E. C. M., ed., The Nile Delta in Transition. 4th-3rd Millennium B.C.: Proceedings of the Seminar held in Cairo, 21–24 October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies. Tel Aviv: Edwin C.M. van den Brink, 441–77.Google Scholar
Brandl, B. (2018). Morphology and Function of the Sealings from the Moat Deposit. In Stager, L. E., Schloen, J. D., and Voss, R. J., eds., Ashkelon, vol. 6: The Middle Bronze Age Ramparts and Gates of the North Slope and Later Fortifications. University Park: Eisenbrauns, 383–426.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C., Dee, M.W., Rowland, J.M. et al. (2010). Radiocarbon-based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt. Science 328: 1554–57.Google ScholarPubMed
Brovarski, E. (2010). The Hare and Oryx Nomes in the First Intermediate Period and Early Middle Kingdom. In Woods, A., McFarlane, A., and Binder, S., eds., Egyptian Culture and Society: Studies in Honour of Naguib Kanawati, vol. 1. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 31–85.Google Scholar
Buck de, A. (1935). The Egyptian Coffin Texts, vol. I: Texts of Spells 1–75. Chicago: Oriental Institute.Google Scholar
Burn, J. W. (2021). A River in ‘Drought’? Environment and Cultural Ramifications of Old Kingdom Climate Change. Oxford: BAR.Google Scholar
Candelora, D. (2017). Defining the Hyksos: A Reevaluation of the Title HqA xAswt and its Implications for Hyksos Identity. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 53: 203–21.10.5913/jarce.53.2017.a010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Černý, J. (1935). Semites in Egyptian Mining Expeditions to Sinai. Archiv orientálni 7: 384–9.Google Scholar
Černý, J. (1955). The Inscriptions of Sinai II: Translations and Commentary. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Charaf, H. (2009). Arqa and its Regional Connections Redux. In Maila-Afeiche, A. M., ed., Interconnections in the Eastern Mediterranean. Lebanon in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Proceedings of the International Symposium Beirut 2008. Beirut: Ministère de la Culture, 295–309.Google Scholar
Chase-Dunn, C. and Hall, T. D. (1993). Comparing World Systems: Concepts and Working Hypotheses. Social Forces 71: 851–66.10.2307/2580122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, S. L. (2002). Canaanites, Chronologies, and Connections: The Relationship of Middle Bronze IIA Canaan to Middle Kingdom Egypt. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.10.1163/9789004369856CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, S. L. (2015). Interpretive Uses and Abuses of the Beni Hasan Tomb Painting. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 74(1): 19–38.10.1086/679590CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, S. L. (2016). Peripheral Concerns. Urban Development in the Bronze Age Southern Levant. Sheffield: Equinox.10.1558/isbn.9781781793718CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, S. L. (2017). Reevaluation of Connections between Egypt and the Southern Levant in the Middle Bronze Age in Light of the New Higher Chronology. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 13: 34–42.Google Scholar
Cohen-Weinberger, A. and Goren, Y. (2004). Levantine-Egyptian Interactions during the 12th to 15th Dynasties based on the Petrography of the Canaanite Pottery from Tell el-Dabʿa. Ägypten und Levante 14: 69–100.Google Scholar
Colonna, A. (2018). Gods in Translation: Dynamics of Transculturality between Egypt and Byblos in the III Millennium BC. Studi e Materiali Di. Storia delle Religioni 84(1): 65–90.Google Scholar
Cour-Marty, M. A. (1990). Les poids égyptiens, de précieux jalons archéologiques. Cahiers de recherches de l’Institut de papyrologie et d’égyptologie de Lille 12: 17–55.Google Scholar
Couyat, J. and Montet, P. (1912–1913). Les inscriptions hiéroglyphiques et hiératiques du Ouâdi Hammâmât. Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale.Google Scholar
Creasman, P. P. (2013). Ship Timber and the Reuse of Wood in Ancient Egypt. Journal of Egyptian History 6: 152–76.10.1163/18741665-12340007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Czerny, E. (1999). Tell el Dabʻa IX: Eine Plansiedlung des frühen Mittleren Reiches. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Czerny, E. (2015). Tell el Dabʻa XXII: Der Mund der beiden Wege: Die Siedlung und der Tempelbezirk des Mittleren Reiches von Ezbet Ruschdi. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
D’Andrea, M. (2023). Contacts between Egypt and the Southern Levant in the Late Early Bronze Age: An Open Question. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 37: 85–108.Google Scholar
Darnell, J. C. (2003). The Rock Inscriptions of Tjehemau at Abisko. Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 30: 31–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darnell, J. C. (2008). The Eleventh Dynasty Royal Inscription from Deir el-Ballas. Revue d’Égyptologie 59: 81–110.10.2143/RE.59.0.2036286CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darnell, J. C., Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W., Lundberg, M. J., McCarter, P. K., Zuckerman, B. and Manassa, C. (2005). Two Early Alphabetic Inscriptions from the Wadi el-Ḥôl: New Evidence for the Origin of the Alphabet from the Western Desert of Egypt. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 59: 64–124.Google Scholar
Davis, D. D. (1983). Investigating the Diffusion of Stylistic Innovations. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 53–89.10.1016/B978-0-12-003106-1.50007-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dietler, M. (2011). Feasting and Fasting. In Insoll, T., ed., The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 179–94.Google Scholar
Doumet-Serhal, C. (2004). Sidon (Lebanon): Twenty Middle Bronze Age Burials from the 2001 Season of Excavation. Levant 36: 89–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doumet-Serhal, C. (2006). Sidon: Mediterranean Contacts in the Early and Middle Bronze Age, Preliminary Report. Archaeology and History of Lebanon 24: 34–47.Google Scholar
Doumet-Serhal, C. and Boschloos, V. (2021). Sidon and Tell el-Dabʻa – an Example of Levantine/Egyptian Commercial and Cultural Relations: A Step Towards the Understanding of the Hyksos Phenomenon. In Bietak, M. and Prell, S., eds., The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. IV: Changing Clusters and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 223–41.Google Scholar
Dunand, M. (1937–1954). Fouilles de Byblos, 2 vols. Paris: Libraire orientaliste Paul Geuthner.Google Scholar
Edel, E., Seyfried, K. J., and Vieler, G. (2007). Die Felsgräbernekropole der Qubbet el-Hawa bei Assuan, vol. I: Die Architektur, Darstellungen, Texte, archäologischer Befund und Funde der Gräber QH 24–QH 209. Paderborn: Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh.Google Scholar
Edel, E., Seyfried, K.J. and Vieler, G. (2008). Die Felsgräbernekropole der Qubbet el-Hawa bei Assuan, vol. I: Die Architektur, Darstellungen, Texte, archäologischer Befund und Funde der Gräber QH 24–QH 209. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erdil, P., Webster, L., Kuitems, M. et al. (2024). Resolution of the High versus Low Debate for Old and Middle Kingdom Egypt. PLoS One 20(5): e0314612. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espinel, A. D. (2002). The Role of the Temple of Ba‘alat Gebal as Intermediary between Egypt and Byblos during the Old Kingdom. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 30: 103–19.Google Scholar
Espinel, A. D. (2015–2016). Bringing Treasures and Placing Fears: Old Kingdom Epithets and Titles related to Activities Abroad. Isimu 18–19: 103–46.Google Scholar
Fahlander, F. (2007). Third Space Encounters: Hybridity, Mimicry and Interstitial Practice. In Cornell, P. and Fahlander, F., eds., Encounters, Materialities, Confrontations: Archaeologies of Social Space and Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Press, 15–41.Google Scholar
Feinman, G. M. (2017). Economic Aspects of Globalization in the Past Material World. In Hodos, T., ed., The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization. London: Routledge, 42–53.Google Scholar
Flammini, R. (2010). Elite Emulation and Patronage Relationships in the Middle Bronze: The Egyptianized Dynasty of Byblos. Tel Aviv 37: 154–68.10.1179/033443510x12760074471026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flammini, R. (2020). Northeast Africa and the Levant in Connection: A World-Systems Perspective on Interregional Relationships in the Early Second Millennium BC. In Wilkinson, T. C., Sherratt, S., and Bennet, J., eds., Interweaving Worlds: Systemic Interactions in Eurasia, 7th to 1st Millennia BC. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 205–17.Google Scholar
Forbes, R. J. (1974). Studies in Ancient Technology, vol. 8: Metallurgy in Antiquity, part I: Early Metallurgy, the Smith and his Tools, Gold, Silver and Lead, Zinc and Brass. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Forstner-Müller, I. (2008). Tell el Dabʻa XVI: Die Gräber des Areals A/II von Tell el-Dabʻa. ÖAW: Vienna: Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts.10.1553/0x001a253cCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forstner-Müller, I. Kopetzky, K., and Doumet-Serhal, C. (2006). Egyptian Pottery of the Late 12th and 13th Dynasty from Sidon. Archaeology and History of Lebanon 24: 52–9.Google Scholar
Forstner-Müller, I. and Moeller, N., eds. (2018). The Hyksos Ruler Khyan and the Early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt: Problems and Priorities of Current Research. Vienna: Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts.Google Scholar
Forstner-Müller, I. and Raue, D. (2014). Contacts between Egypt and the Levant in the 3rd Millennium BC. In F. Höflmayer and Eichmann, R., eds., Egypt and the Southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf, 57–67.Google Scholar
Forstner-Müller, I., Hassler, A., Matić, U. and Rose, P. (2015). Der Hafen von Avaris – Das Areal R/IV, Erster Vorbericht. Ägypten und Levante 25: 73–88.10.1553/AEundL25s73CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuscaldo, P. (2010). Tell el-Dabʻa X/2: The Palace District of Avaris: The Pottery of the Hyksos Period and the New Kingdom (Areas H/III and H/VI). Two Execration Pits and a Foundation Deposit. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Galán, J. M. (1995). Victory and Border: Terminology Related to Egyptian Imperialism in the XVIIIth Dynasty. Hildesheim: Gerstenberg Verlag.Google Scholar
Gardiner, A. H. (1909). The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage from a Hieratic Papyrus in Leiden (Pap. Leiden 344 recto). Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs.Google Scholar
Gardiner, A. H. (1917). The Tomb of a Much-Travelled Theban Official. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 4: 28–38.10.1177/030751331700400106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardiner, A. H. and Peet, T. E. (1917). The Inscriptions of Sinai, vol. I: Introduction and Plates, 2nd ed. 1952. London: The Egypt Exploration Fund.Google Scholar
Genz, H. (2012). The Northern Levant. In Potts, D. T., ed., A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 1st ed. Cambridge: Blackwell, 607–28.Google Scholar
Genz, H. and Ahrens, A. (2023). In the Shadow of Byblos: The Early Bronze Age Aegyptiaca from Tell Fadous-Kfarabida. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 37: 135–52.Google Scholar
Goedicke, H. (1994). A Cult Inventory of the Eighth Dynasty from Coptos. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 50: 71–84.Google Scholar
Goldwasser, O. (2006). Canaanites Reading Hieroglyphs. Horus is Hathor? – The Invention of the Alphabet in Sinai. Ägypten und Levante 16: 121–60.Google Scholar
Goldwasser, O. (2012). The Miners who Invented the Alphabet – A Response to Christopher Rollston. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 4(3): 9–22.10.2458/azu_jaei_v04i3_goldwasserCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldwasser, O. (2012/2013). Out of the Mists of the Alphabet – Redrawing the ‘Brother of the Ruler of Retjenu’. Ägypten und Levante 22–23: 353–74.Google Scholar
Goldwasser, O. (2017). What is a Horse? Lexical Acculturation and Classification in Egyptian, Sumerian, and Nahuatl. In Pommerening, T. and Bisang, W., eds., Classification from Antiquity to Modern Times. Berlin: De Gruyter, 45–65.10.1515/9783110538779-003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golénischeff, V. S. (1913). Les papyrus hiératiques nos. 1115, 1116 A et 1116B de l’Ermitage impérial à St-Petersburg. St. Petersburg: Direction de l’Ermitage Impérial.Google Scholar
Grandet, P. (2022). Egypt’s New Kingdom in Contact with the World. In Radner, K., Moeller, N., and Potts, D. T., eds., The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, vol. III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 367–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, M. (1983). The Syrian and Lebanese Topographical Data in the Story of Sinuhe. Chronique d’Égypte 58: 38–59.10.1484/J.CDE.2.308618CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimm, A. (1985). Das Fragment einer Liste fremdländischer Tiere, Pflanzen und Städte aus dem Totentempel des Königs Djedkare-Asosi: Zu drei bisher unbekannten afrikanischen Toponymen. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 12: 29–41.Google Scholar
Gundacker, R. (2017). The Significance of Foreign Toponyms and Ethnonyms in Old Kingdom Text Sources. In Höflmayer, F., ed., The Late Third Millennium in the Ancient Near East. Chronology, C14, and Climate Change. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 333–426.Google Scholar
Habachi, L. (1963). King Nebhepetre Mentuhotp: His Monuments, Place in History, Deification and Unusual Representation in the Form of Gods. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 19: 16–32.Google Scholar
Harrison, T. P. (2012). The Southern Levant. In Potts, D. T., ed., A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 1st ed. Cambridge: Blackwell, 629–46.Google Scholar
Harvey, S. (1998). The Cults of King Ahmose at Abydos. PhD Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Hassan, S. (1955). The Causeway of Wnis at Saqqara. Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 80: 136–9.10.1524/zaes.1955.80.12.136CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, W. C. (1949). Career of the Great Steward Ḥenenu under Nebḥepetrēˤ Mentuḥotpe. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 35: 43–9.Google Scholar
Hayes, W. C. (1972). A Papyrus of the Late Middle Kingdom in the Brooklyn Museum (Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446), 2nd reprint. Brooklyn: The Brooklyn Museum.Google Scholar
Hein, I. (2018). Second Thoughts on Cypriot Pottery and First Appearances. In Forstner-Müller, I. and Moeller, N., eds., The Hyksos Ruler Khyan and the Early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt: Problems and Priorities of Current Research. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 125–42.Google Scholar
Hein, I. (2024). What ʻEzbet Helmi Tells Us about the East Mediterranean and Chronology. In Driessen, J. and Fantuzzi, T., eds., Chronos: Stratigraphic Analysis, Pottery Seriation and Radiocarbon Dating in Mediterranean Chronology. Louvain: Presses Universitaires de Louvain, 83–116.Google Scholar
Helck, W. (1971). Die Beziehungen Ägyptens zu VorderAsien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Helck, W. (1983). Historische-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18. Dynastie, revised edn. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Herbich, T. and Forstner-Müller, I. (2013). Small Harbours in the Nile Delta. The Case of Tell el-Dab‘a. Études et Travaux 26: 258–72.Google Scholar
Hodos, T. (2017). Globalization. In Hodos, T., ed., The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization. London: Routledge, 3–11.Google Scholar
Höflmayer, F. (2014). Egypt and the Southern Levant in the Late Early Bronze Age. In Höflmayer, F. and Eichmann, R., eds., Egypt and the Southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf, 135–48.Google Scholar
Höflmayer, F. (2015). Egypt’s ‘Empire’ in the Southern Levant during the Early 18th Dynasty. In Eder, B. and Pruzsinszky, R., eds., Policies of Exchange: Political Systems and Modes of Interaction in the Aegean and the Near East in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 191–206.Google Scholar
Höflmayer, F. (2017). A Radiocarbon Chronology for the Middle Bronze Age Southern Levant. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 13: 20–33.Google Scholar
Höflmayer, F. (2019). The Expulsion of the Hyksos and the End of the Middle Bronze Age: A Reassessment in Light of Recent Chronological Research. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 21: 20–30.Google Scholar
Hofmann, T. (2002). Die Autobiographie des Uni von Abydos. Lingua Aegyptia 10: 225–37.Google Scholar
Hopkins, T. and Wallerstein, I., eds. (1982). World Systems Analysis: Theory and Methodology. Beverley Hills: Sage.Google Scholar
Hörburger, J. (2007). Black Lustrous Wheel-Made Ware in Egypt: The Distribution of a Cypriot Import. In Hein, I., ed., The Lustrous Wares of Late Bronze Age Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 107–13.Google Scholar
Howard, M. C. (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. Jefferson: McFarland.Google Scholar
Ilin-Tomich, A. (2023). Egyptian Name Scarabs from the 12th to the 15th Dynasty: Geography and Chronology of Production. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Jaroš-Deckert, B. (1984). Grabung im Asasif 1963–1970, vol. 5: Das Grab des Jnj-jtj.f: Die Wandmalereien der XI. Dynastie. Mainz am Rhein: Phillip von Zabern.Google Scholar
Jennings, J. (2011). Globalizations and the Ancient World. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jéquier, G. (1940). Le monument funéraire de Pepi II, vol. III. Cairo: Institut français d’archèologie orientale.Google Scholar
Jüngling, J. and Höflmayer, F. (2023). Early Dynastic/Old Kingdom Egypt and the Early Bronze Age Levant: The History of the 3rd and 4th Dynasties and New Radiocarbon Dates in Dialogue. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 37: 191–222.Google Scholar
Kamrin, J. (2009). The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 1(3): 22–36.Google Scholar
Kanawati, N. and Evans, L. (2014). Beni Hassan, vol. I: The Tomb of Khnumhotep II. Oxford: Aris & Phillips.Google Scholar
Kanawati, N. and Evans, L. (2016). Beni Hassan, vol. IV: The Tomb of Amenemhat. Oxford: Aris & Phillips Ltd.Google Scholar
Kanawati, N. and Evans, L. (2019). Beni Hassan, vol. V: The Tomb of Baqet III. Wallasey: Abercromby Press.Google Scholar
Kanawati, N. and Evans, L. (2020). Beni Hassan, vol. VI: The Tomb of Khety. Wallasey: Abercromby Press.Google Scholar
Kanawati, N. and McFarlane, A. (1993). Deshasha: The Tombs of Inti, Shedu and Others. Sydney: Australian Centre for Egyptology.Google Scholar
Kanawati, N. and Swinton, J. (2018). Egypt in the Sixth Dynasty: Challenges and Responses. Wallasey: Abercromby Press.Google Scholar
Kawai, N. (2022). Intact Simultaneous Multiple Burials on the Slope of an Outcropping in Northwest Saqqara. In Kawai, N. and Davies, B. G., eds., The Star Who Appears in Thebes: Studies in Honour of Jiro Kondo. Wallasey: Abercromby Press, 183–206.Google Scholar
Kibaroğlu, M., Kozal, E., Klügel, A., Hartmann, G. and Monien, P. (2019). New Evidence on the Provenance of Red Lustrous Wheel-Made Ware (RLW): Petrographic, Elemental and Sr-Nd Isotope Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 24: 412–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.02.004.Google Scholar
Kibaroğlu, M., Kozal, E., Crewe, L., et al. (2025). A Comparative Archaeometric Study of Late Bronze Age Black Lustrous and Red Lustrous Wheel-made Wares from the Eastern Mediterranean. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 65: 105216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105216.Google Scholar
Koch, I. (2019). Southwestern Canaan and Egypt during the Late Bronze Age I–IIA. In Maeir, A. M., Shai, I., and McKinny, C., eds., The Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Southern Canaan. Boston: De Gruyter, 262–82.Google Scholar
Koch, R. (1990). Die Erzählung des Sinuhe. Brussels: Éditions de la Fondation Égyptoloque.Google Scholar
Kopetzky, K. (2008). The MB IIB-Corpus of the Hyksos Period at Tell el-Dab‘a. In Bietak, M. and Czerny, E., eds., The Bronze Age in the Lebanon: Studies on the Archaeology and Chronology of Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 195–241.Google Scholar
Kopetzky, K. (2010). Tell el-Dabʻa XX: Die Chronologie der Siedlungskeramik der 2. Zwischenzeit aus Tell el-Dabʻa. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Kopetzky, K. (2018). Tell el-Dab‘a and Byblos: New Chronological Evidence. Ägypten und Levante 28: 309–58.10.1553/AEundL28s309CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopetzky, K. and Bietak, M. (2016). A Seal Impression of the Green Jasper Workshop from Tell el-Dabʻa. Ägypten und Levante 26: 357–75.Google Scholar
Köpp-Junk, H. (2015). Reisen im Alten Ägypten: Reisekultur, Fortbewegungs- und Transportmittel in pharaonischer Zeit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Lange, H. O. and Schäfer, H. (1902–1908). Grab und Denksteine des Mittleren Reichs im Museum von Kairo, vols. 1–2, 4. Berlin: Reichsdruckerei.Google Scholar
Lashien, M. (2020). Donkeys in the Old and Middle Kingdoms according to the Representations and Livestock Counts from Private Tombs. Études et Travaux 33: 121–37.Google Scholar
Lashien, M. and Mourad, A.-L. (2019). Beni Hassan, vol. III: The Tomb of Khnumhotep I. Oxford: Aris & Phillips.Google Scholar
Lebeau, M., ed. (2014–2018). Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean. Interregional, vol. I-II. Turnhout: Brepols.Google Scholar
Lilyquist, C. (1993). Granulation and Glass: Chronological and Stylistic Investigations at Selected Sites, ca. 2500–1400 BCE. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 290/291: 29–94.10.2307/1357319CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littauer, M. and Crouwel, J. (1979). Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Loffet, H. (2011/2012). The Sidon Scarabs. Archaeology and History in Lebanon 34/35: 104–38.Google Scholar
Luft, U. (2006). Urkunden zur Chronologie der spaten 12. Dynastie: Briefe aus Illahun. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.10.1553/0x000487caCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maeir, A. M. and Mullins, R. A. (2012). The Tell el-Yahudiyah Ware from Tel Beth-Shean. In Aston, D. and Bietak, M., eds., Tell el-Dabʻa VIII: The Classification and Chronology of Tell el-Yahudiya Ware. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 577–89.Google Scholar
Manning, S. (2024). Thera, the Aegean, Egypt, the Hyksos and Anatolia: Rethinking the Orthodox Synchronisations and Histories. Journal of Greek Archaeology 9: 235–76.10.32028/jga.v9i.2744CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marcolin, M. and Espinel, A. D. (2011). The Sixth Dynasty Biographic Inscriptions of Iny: More Pieces to the Puzzle. In Bárta, M., Coppens, F., and Krejãí, J., eds., Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2010/1. Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, 570–615.Google Scholar
Marcus, E. S. (2007). Amenemhet II and the Sea: Maritime Aspects of the Mit Rahina (Memphis) Inscription. Ägypten und Levante 17: 137–90.Google Scholar
Marcus, E. S., Porath, Y., and Paley, S. M. (2008). The Early Middle Bronze Age IIa Phases at Tel Ifshar and their External Relations. Ägypten und Levante 18: 221–44.Google Scholar
Martin, G. T. (1971). Egyptian Administrative and Private-Name Seals Principally of the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period. Oxford: Griffith Institute.Google Scholar
Martin, G. T. (1998). The Toponym Retjenu on a Scarab from Tell el-Dab‘a. Ägypten und Levante 8: 109–12.Google Scholar
Matić, U. (2017). Der dritte Raum, Hybridität und das Niltal: Das epistemologische Potenzial der postkolonialen Theorie in der Ägyptologie. In Beck, S., Backes, B., and Verbovsek, A., eds., Interkulturalität: Kontakt – Konflikt – Konzeptualisierung. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 93–111.Google Scholar
Mazar, A. and Mullins, R. A. (2007). Introduction and Overview. In Mazar, A. and Mullins, R. A., eds., Excavations at Tel Beth Shean 1989–1996, vol. 2: The Middle and Late Bronze Age Strata in Area R. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1–22.Google Scholar
McFarlane, A. (2003). Mastabas at Saqqara: Kaiemheset, Kaipunesut, Kaiemsenu, Sehetepu and Others. Oxford: Aris & Phillips.Google Scholar
McGuire, R. H. (2000). Core and Periphery Systems. In Ellis, L., ed., Archaeological Method and Theory: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge, 132–37.Google Scholar
de Meulenaere, H. (1985). Les monuments d’un haut dignitaire de la 13e dynastie. Chronique d’Egypte 60: 75–84.10.1484/J.CDE.2.308674CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, B. J., Peeples, M. A., Randall Haas, W. et al. (2015). Multiscalar Perspectives on Social Networks in the Late Prehispanic Southwest. American Antiquity 80(1): 3–24.10.7183/0002-7316.79.4.3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Miroschedji, P. (2001). Notes on Early Bronze Age Metrology and the Birth of Architecture in Ancient Palestine. In Wolff, S. R., ed., Studies in the Archaeology of Israel and Neighbouring Lands in Memory of Douglas L. Esse. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 465–91.Google Scholar
de Miroschedji, P. (2002). The Socio-Political Dynamics of Egyptian-Canaanite Interaction in the Early Bronze Age. In van den Brink, E. C. M. and Levy, T. E., eds., Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th through the Early 3rd Millennium B.C.E. London: Leicester University Press, 39–57.Google Scholar
de Miroschedji, P. (2015). Les relations entre l’Égypte et le Levant aux IVe et IIIe millénaires à la lumière des fouilles de Tell es-Sakan. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 2015(2): 1003–38.Google Scholar
Montet, P. (1928). Byblos et L’Égypte: Quatre campaigne de fouilles a Gebeil 1921–1922–1923–1924. Paris: Geuthner.Google Scholar
Moorey, P. (1986). The Emergence of the Light, Horse-Drawn Chariot in the Near East c. 2000–1500 B.C. World Archaeology 18(2): 196–215.10.1080/00438243.1986.9979998CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moreno García, J. C. (2015). Climatic Change or Sociopolitical Transformation? Reassessing Late 3rd Millennium BC in Egypt. In Meller, H., Arz, H.W., Jung, R. and Risch, R., eds., 2200 BC – A Climatic Breakdown as a Cause for the Collapse of the Old World? 7th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany, October 23–26, 2014 in Halle (Saale). Halle: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, 79–94.Google Scholar
Moreno García, J. C. (2017). Trade and Power in Ancient Egypt: Middle Egypt in the Late Third/Early Second Millennium BC. Journal of Archaeological Research 25(2): 87–132.10.1007/s10814-016-9097-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, E. (2005). The Architecture of Imperialism: Military Bases and the Evolution of Foreign Policy in Egypt’s New Kingdom. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Morris, E. (2022). Daggers and Axes for the Queen: Considering Ahhotep’s Weapons in their Cultural Context. In Miniaci, G. and Lacovara, P., eds., The Treasure of the Egyptian Queen Ahhotep and International Relations at the Turn of the Middle Bronze Age (1600–1500 BCE). London: Golden House Press, 165–86.Google Scholar
Mourad, A.-L. (2011). Siege Scenes of the Old Kingdom. Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology 22: 135–58.Google Scholar
Mourad, A.-L. (2013). Remarks on Sinuhe’s Qedem and Yaa. Göttinger Miszellen 238: 69–84.Google Scholar
Mourad, A.-L. (2015). Rise of the Hyksos: Egypt and the Levant from the Middle Kingdom to the Early Second Intermediate Period. Oxford: Archaeopress.10.2307/j.ctvr43jbkCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mourad, A-L. (2020). Foreigners at Beni Hassan: Evidence from the Tomb of Khnumhotep I (No. 14). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 384: 105–32.10.1086/710528CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mourad, A.-L. (2021). The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. II: Transforming Egypt into the New Kingdom. The Impact of the Hyksos and Egyptian-Near Eastern Relations. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Müller, H. W. (1987). Waffenfund von Balata-Sichem und die Sichelschwerter. Philosophische-Historische Klasse Neue Folge Heft 97. Munich: Verlag der Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Müller, V. (2008). Tell el-Dabʻa XVII: Opferdeponierungen in der Hyksoshauptstadt Auaris (Tell el-Dabʻa) vom späten Mittleren Reich bis zum frühen Neuen Reich. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.10.1553/0x001b1e18CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mumford, G. (2006). Tell Ras Budran (Site 345): Defining Egypt’s Eastern Frontier and Mining Operations in South Sinai during the Late Old Kingdom (Early EB IV/MB I). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 342: 13–67.10.1086/BASOR25066952CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naville, E. (1907). The XIth Dynasty Temple at Deir el-Bahari, vol. I. London: Egypt Exploration Fund.10.5479/sla.860741.39088017853151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nigro, L. (2019). Archaeological Periodization vs Absolute Chronology: What Does Not Work with High and Low Early Bronze Age in Southern Levant. In Gallo, E., ed., Conceptualizing Urban Experiences: Tell es-Sultan and Tall al-Ḥammām Early Bronze Age Cities across the Jordan. Rome: Sapienza University of Rome, 1–14.Google Scholar
Nour el-Din, M., Hulková, L., Sefcáková, A., Hudec, J. and Wodzińska, A. (2016). Egyptian Mission Rescue Excavations in Tell el-Retaba. Part 2: The Second Intermediate Period Cemetery. Ägypten und Levante 26: 75–114.10.1553/AEundL26s75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connor, D. (2003). Egypt’s Views of ‘Others’. In Tait, J., ed., ‘Never had the Like Occurred’: Egypt’s View of its Past. London: UCL Press, 155–85.Google Scholar
Ownby, M. (2010). Canaanite Jars from Memphis as Evidence for Trade and Political Relationships in the Middle Bronze Age. PhD Dissertation, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Parker, H. (2022). The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim in their Archaeological Context. Ägypten und Levante 32: 269–311.10.1553/AEundL32s269CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkinson, R. B. (2002). Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection. London: Equinox.Google Scholar
Petrik, M. (2011). Foreign Groups at Lahun during the Late Middle Kingdom. In Bechtold, E., Gulyás, A., and Hasznos, A., eds., From Illahun to Djeme: Papers Presented in Honour of Ulrich Luft. Oxford: BAR, 211–26.Google Scholar
Pfälzner, P. (2013). The Elephant Hunters of Bronze Age Syria. In Aruz, J., Graff, S. B., and Rakic, Y., eds., Cultures in Contact: From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 112–31.Google Scholar
Philip, G. (2006). Tell el-Dabʻa XV: Metal and Metalworking Evidence of the Late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.10.1553/0x001231b7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porada, E. (1984). The Cylinder Seal from Tell el-Dabʻa. American Journal of Archaeology 88: 485–8.10.2307/504736CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posener, G. (1940). Princes et pays d’Asie et de Nubie: Textes hiératiques sur des figurines d’envoûtement du Moyen Empire. Brussels: Fondation Égyptologique reine Élisabeth.Google Scholar
Posener, G. (1969). Littérature et politique dans l’Égypte de la XII’ dynastie. Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion.Google Scholar
Prag, K. (1986). Byblos and Egypt in the Fourth Millennium BC. Levant 18: 59–74.10.1179/lev.1986.18.1.59CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prakash, T. (2022). Ancient Egyptian Prisoner Statues: Fragments of the Late Old Kingdom. Columbus: Lockwood Press.Google Scholar
Prell, S. (2021). The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. III: Vorderasiatische Bestattungssitten im Ostdelta Ägyptens – eine Spurensuche. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Prell, S. and Rahmstorf, L. (2021). Implications for Trade – Weights from Tell el-Dab‘a as Indicators of Eastern Mediterranean Influence on Egypt. In Kilian, A. and Zöller-Engelhardt, M., eds., Excavating the Extra-Ordinary. Challenges & Merits of Working with Small Finds. Proceedings of the International Egyptological Workshop at Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, 8–9 April 2019. Heidelberg: Propylaeum, 133–53.Google Scholar
Prell, S., Rahmstorf, L., and Ialongo, N. (2021). Weights and Weight Systems in Tell el-Dab‘a in the Middle and Late Bronze Age. In Bietak, M. and Prell, S., eds., The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. IV: Changing Clusters and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4th–6th of December 2019. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 437–55.Google Scholar
Quiles, A., Sowada, K., and Kanawati, N. (2023). Dating the End of the Egyptian Old Kingdom: New Contextualized Dates from the Reign of King Pepy II. Radiocarbon 65(5): 1080–97.10.1017/RDC.2023.94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rainey, A. F. (1994). Review: Remarks on Donald Redford’s ‘Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times’. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 294: 81–5.Google Scholar
Reali, C. (2017). Egyptian-Levantine Cultural Contacts: Considerations about the Iconography of Female Deities on the Sealings from Avaris and Cultural Diversities. Claroscuro 16: 1–51.Google Scholar
Redford, D. B. (1979). A Gate Inscription from Karnak and Egyptian Involvement in Western Asia during the Early 18th Dynasty. Journal of the American Oriental Society 99(2): 270–87.10.2307/602663CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redford, D. B. (1986). Egypt and Western Asia in the Old Kingdom. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 23: 125–43.10.2307/40001094CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redford, D. B. (1987). The Tod Inscription of Senwosret I and Early 12th Dynasty Involvement in Nubia and the South. Journal of the Society of the Studies of Egyptian Antiquities 17(1): 35–57.Google Scholar
Redford, D. B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton: Princeton University Press.10.1515/9780691214658CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redford, D. B. (2003). The Wars in Syria and Palestine of Thutmose III. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789047402053CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regev, J., de Miroschedji, P., Greenberg, R., Braun, E., Greenhut, Z. and Boaretto, E. (2012). Chronology of the Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant: New Analysis for a High Chronology. Radiocarbon 54(3): 525–68.10.1017/S003382220004724XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richards, J. (2002). Text and Context in Late Old Kingdom Egypt: The Archaeology and Historiography of Weni the Elder. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 39: 75–102.10.2307/40001150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ritner, R. K. (1993). The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice. Chicago: Oriental Institute.Google Scholar
Roeder, G. (1911). Debod bis Bab Kalabsche, vol. I. Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale.Google Scholar
Rollston, C. (2011). The Probable Inventors of the First Alphabet: Semites functioning as rather High Status Personnel in a Component of the Egyptian Apparatus. Rollston Epigraphy: Ancient Inscriptions from the Levantine World, www.rollstonepigraphy.com/?p=195 (accessed 21 February 2024).Google Scholar
Roudometof, V. (2016). Glocalization: A Critical Introduction. New York: Routledge.10.4324/9781315858296CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryholt, K. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.Google Scholar
Rzepka, S., Hudec, J., Jarmużek, Ł. et al. (2015). From Hyksos Settlers to Ottoman Pipe Smokers. Tell el-Retaba 2014. Ägypten und Levante 25: 97–166.10.1553/AEundL25s97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabbahy, L. (2018). Moving Pictures: Context of Use and Iconography of Chariots in the New Kingdom. In Veldmeijer, A. and Ikram, S., eds., Chariots in Ancient Egypt. The Tano Chariot, A Case Study. Leiden: Sidestone Press, 120–49.Google Scholar
Sallaberger, W. and Schrakamp, I., eds. (2013). Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean. Interregional, vol. III. Turnhout: Brepols.Google Scholar
Schiestl, R. (2009). Tell el Dabʻa XVIII: Die Palastnekropole von Tell el-Dabʻa. Die Gräber des Areals F/I der Straten d/2 und d/1. Vienna: Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts.Google Scholar
Schneider, T. (1992). Asiatische Personennamen in ägyptischen Quellen des Neuen Reiches. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.Google Scholar
Schneider, T. (1998–2003a). Ausländer in Ägypten während des Mittleren Reiches und der Hyksoszeit, 2 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Schneider, T. (2003b). Foreign Egypt: Egyptology and the Concept of Cultural Appropriation. Ägypten und Levante 13: 155–61.Google Scholar
Schneider, T. (2010). Foreigners in Egypt. Archaeological Evidence and Cultural Context. In Wendrich, W., ed., Egyptian Archaeology. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 143–63.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. (2021). Non-Cuneiform Writing at Third Millennium Umm el-Marra, Syria: Evidence of an Early Alphabetic Tradition? Pasiphae 13: 255–66.Google Scholar
Sethe, K. (1903–1988). Urkunden des Ägyptischen Altertums. Abteilung I–VIII. Leipzig: Hinrichs.Google Scholar
Sethe, K. (1926). Die Ächtung feindlicher Fürsten, Vōlker und Dinge auf altägyptischen Tongefässcherben des Mittleren Reiches. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Shaw, I. (1998). Exploiting the Desert Frontier; the Logistics and Politics of Ancient Egyptian Mining Expeditions. In Knapp, A. B., Pigott, V. C., and Herbert, E. W., eds., Social Approaches to an Industrial Past: The Archaeology and Anthropology of Mining. London: Routledge, 242–58.Google Scholar
Shaw, I. (2012). Ancient Egyptian Technology and Innovation: Transformations in Pharaonic Material Culture. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Shortland, A. and Bronk Ramsey, C., eds. (2013). Radiocarbon and the Chronologies of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxbow Books.10.2307/j.ctvh1dmh2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, W. K. (1974). The Terrace of the Great God at Abydos: The Offering Chapels of Dynasties 12 and 13. New Haven: The Peabody Museum of Natural History of Yale University.Google Scholar
Sowada, K. (2009). Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom. An Archaeological Perspective. Fribourg: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sowada, K. (2014). Never the Twain Shall Meet? Synchronising Egyptian and Levantine Chronologies in the 3rd Millennium BC. In Höflmayer, F. and Eichmann, R., eds., Egypt and the Southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf, 293–313.Google Scholar
Sowada, K., Ownby, M., and Wodzińska, A. (2020). The Petrography of Imported Levantine Combed Vessels from Early Old Kingdom Giza. Levant 52: 197–214.10.1080/00758914.2019.1664197CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sowada, K., Wetterstrom, W., Jacobsen, G., Bertuch, F. and Serpico, M. (2023). Contents, Status, and Symbolism: The Study of Residues from Imported Jars at Old Kingdom Giza. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 37: 281–300.Google Scholar
Spalinger, A. (1978). A New Reference to an Egyptian Campaign of Thutmose III in Asia. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 37(1): 35–41.10.1086/372619CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spalinger, A. (2005). War in Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom. Malden, MA: Blackwell.10.1002/9780470774861CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stager, L. E. and Voss, R. J. (2012). A Sequence of Tell el Yahudiya Ware from Ashkelon. In Aston, D. and Bietak, M., eds., Tell el-Dabʻa VIII: The Classification and Chronology of Tell el-Yahudiya Ware. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 559–76.Google Scholar
Stager, L. E. and Voss, R. J. (2018a). Stratigraphic Synchronisms between Ashkelon and Tell el-Dab‘a. In Stager, L. E., Schloen, J. D., and Voss, R. J., eds., Ashkelon, vol. 6: The Middle Bronze Age Ramparts and Gates of the North Slope and Later Fortifications. Pennsylvania: Eisenbrauns, 103–13.Google Scholar
Stager, L. E. and Voss, R. J. (2018b). Egyptian Pottery found in Middle Bronze Age Ashkelon. In Stager, L. E., Schloen, J. D., and Voss, R. J., eds., Ashkelon, vol. 6: The Middle Bronze Age Ramparts and Gates of the North Slope and Later Fortifications. Pennsylvania: Eisenbrauns, 237–44.Google Scholar
Stantis, C., Kharobi, A., Maaranen, N. et al. (2020). Who were the Hyksos? Challenging Traditional Narratives using Strontium Isotope (87Sr/86Sr) Analysis of Human Remains from Ancient Egypt. PLoS ONE 15(7): e0235414.10.1371/journal.pone.0235414CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, G. J. (2002). From Passive Periphery to Active Agents: Emerging Perspectives in the Archaeology of Interregional Interaction. Archaeology Division Distinguished Lecture AAA Meeting, Philadelphia, December 5, 1998. American Anthropologist 104(3): 903–16.Google Scholar
Steiner, R. C. (2011). Early Northwest Semitic Serpent Spells in the Pyramid Texts. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.10.1163/9789004369214CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tallet, P. (2018). La zone minière pharaonique du Sud-Sinaï, part III: Les expéditions égyptiennes dans la zone minière du Sud-Sinaï du prédynastique à la fin de la XXe dynastie. Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale.Google Scholar
Trigger, B. G. (2006). A History of Archaeology Thought, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511813016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trimm, C. (2017). Fighting for the King and the Gods: A Survey of Warfare in the Ancient Near East. Atlanta: SBL Press.10.2307/j.ctt1vxm8cjCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tufnell, O. (1973). The Middle Bronze Age Scarab-Seals from Burials on the Mound at Megiddo. Levant 5: 69–82.10.1179/lev.1973.5.1.69CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tufnell, O. and Ward, W. A. (1966). Relations between Byblos, Egypt and Mesopotamia at the End of the Third Millennium BC. Syria 43: 165–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ulf, C. (2014). Rethinking Cultural Contacts. In Rollinger, R. and Schnegg, K., eds., Kulturkontakte in Antiken Welten: vom Denkmodell zum Fallbeispiel. Leuven: Peeters, 507–64.Google Scholar
Van Dijk, J. (2006). False-Door Stela of Ankhef. In Andrews, C. A. and van Dijk, J., eds., Objects for Eternity: Egyptian Antiquities from the W. Arnold Meijer Collection. Mainz am Rhein: Phillip von Zabern, 41–4.Google Scholar
Vandenbeusch, M. (2020). Sur les pas de l’âne dans la religion égyptienne. Leiden: Sidestone Press.Google Scholar
Veldmeijer, A. and Ikram, S., eds. (2018). Chariots in Ancient Egypt. The Tano Chariot, A Case Study. Leiden: Sidestone Press.Google Scholar
Verner, M. (2006). The Pyramid Complex of Raneferef: The Archaeology. Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology.Google Scholar
Verner, M. (2008). The System of Dating in the Old Kingdom. In Vymazalová, H. and Bárta, M., eds., Chronology and Archaeology in Ancient Egypt (The Third Millennium BC). Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, 124–43.Google Scholar
Vertovec, S. (2009). Transnationalism. London: Routledge.10.4324/9780203927083CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vilain, S. (2023). The Enigma of the Hyksos, vol. VI: Crises et échanges pendant la Deuxième Période Intermédiaire: Tell el Dab’a, entre Méditerranée orientale et vallée du Nil. Harrassowitz: Wiesbaden.Google Scholar
Vogel, C. (2013). Icon of Propaganda and Lethal Weapon: Further Remarks on the Late Bronze Age Sickle Sword. In O’Brien, S. and Boatright, D., eds., Warfare and Society in the Ancient Eastern Mediterranean: Papers Arising from a Colloquium Held at the University of Liverpool, 13th June 2008. Oxford: BAR, 71–87.Google Scholar
Wallerstein, I. (1974). The Modern World-System: Capitalism, Agriculture, and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ward, W. A. (1971). Egypt and the East Mediterranean World 2200–1900 B.C.: Studies in Egyptian Foreign Relations during the First Intermediate Period. Beirut: American University of Beirut.Google Scholar
Way, K. C. (2011). Donkeys in the Biblical World: Ceremony and Symbol. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Weinstein, J. M. (1981). The Egyptian Empire in Palestine: A Reassessment. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 241: 1–28.10.2307/1356708CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, J. M. (1992). The Chronology of Palestine in the Early Second Millennium B.C.E. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 288: 27–46.10.2307/1357229CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willems, H. O. (2007). Dayr al-Barshā, vol. I: The Rock Tombs of Djehutinakht (No. 17K74/1), Khnumnakht (No. 17K74/2), and Iha (No. 17K74/3). Leuven: Peeters.Google Scholar
Winter, U. (2012). Frau und Göttin. Exegitsche und ikonographische Studien zum weiblichen Gottesbild im Alten Israel und in dessen Umwelt. Tübingen: Universitätsbibliothek Tübingen.Google Scholar
Wodzińska, A. (2012). Imported Vessels found in Tell el-Retaba – Signs of Egypt’s International Contacts. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 4(4): 45–6.10.2458/azu_jaei_v04i4_wodzinskaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yadin, Y. (1955). The Earliest Record of Egypt’s Military Penetration into Asia? Some Aspects of the Narmer Palette, the ‘Desert Kites’ and Mesopotamian Seal Cylinders. Israel Exploration Journal 5: 1–16.Google Scholar
Yannai, E. and Gorzalczany, A. (2007). Cypriot Grey Lustrous Wheel Made Ware in Israel in Light of New Petrographic Analysis – Typology, Provenance and Chronology. In Hein, I., ed., The Lustrous Wares of Late Bronze Age Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 197–205.Google Scholar
Yekutieli, Y. (2002). Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in North Sinai during the Fifth to Third Millennia BCE. In van den Brink, E. C. M. and Levy, T. E., eds., Egypt and the Levant. London: Leicester University Press, 422–33.Google Scholar
Zernecke, A. E. (2013). The Lady of the Titles: The Lady of Byblos and the Search for her ‘True Name’. Die Welt des Orients 42(3): 226–42.Google Scholar
Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.1 AA
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
The HTML of this Element
complies with version 2.1 of the
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
(WCAG), covering newer accessibility requirements and improved
user experiences and achieves the intermediate
(AA)
level of WCAG compliance, covering a wider range of accessibility requirements.
Content Navigation
Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Reading Order & Textual Equivalents
Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
Full alternative textual descriptions
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.
Visual Accessibility
Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
Structural and Technical Features
ARIA roles provided
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.