Element contents
Racial Order, Racialized Responses: Interminority Politics in a Diverse Nation
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 September 2021
Summary
America's racial sands are quickly shifting, with parallel growth in theories to explain how varied groups respond, politically, to demographic changes. This Element develops a unified framework to predict when, why, and how racial groups react defensively toward others. America's racial groups can be arrayed along two dimensions: how American and how superior are they considered? This Element claims that location along these axes motivates political reactions to outgroups. Using original survey data and experiments, this Element reveals the acute sensitivity that people of color have to their social station and how it animates political responses to racial diversity.
Information
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781108953757Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 04 November 2021
References
Abrajano, Marisa A. 2010. Campaigning to the New American Electorate. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Abrajano, Marisa A., and Alvarez, R. Michael. 2010. New Faces, New Voices: The Hispanic Electorate in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Abrajano, Marisa A., and Hajnal, Zoltan. 2015. White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Acuña, Rodolfo. 1981. Occupied America: A History of Chicanos. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Adcock, Robert, and Collier, David. 2001. Measurement Validity: A Shared Standard for Qualitative and Quantitative Research. American Political Science Review 95(3): 529–546.Google Scholar
Alba, Richard, and Nee, Victor. 2003. Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Baron, Reuben M., and Kenny, David A.. 1986. The Moderator-Mediator Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51(6): 1173–1182.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A. 2007. Si Se Puede! Latino Candidates and the Mobilization of Latino Voters. American Political Science Review 101(3): 425–441.Google Scholar
Beltrán, Cristina. 2010. The Trouble with Unity: Latino Politics and the Creation of Identity. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Benjamin, Andrea. 2017. Racial Coalition Building in Local Elections: Elite Cues and Cross-Ethnic Voting. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Billig, Michael, and Tajfel, Henri. 1973. Social Categorization and Similarity in Intergroup Behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology 3(1): 27–52.Google Scholar
Block, Ray. 2011. What about Disillusionment? Exploring the Pathways to Black Nationalism. Political Behavior 33(1): 27–51.Google Scholar
Blum, Rachel Marie, and Parker, Christopher Sebastian. 2019. Trump-ing Foreign Affairs: Status Threat and Foreign Policy Preferences on the Right. Perspectives on Politics 17(3): 737–755.Google Scholar
Blumer, Herbert. 1958. Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position. Pacific Sociological Review 1: 3–7.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, and Hutchings, Vincent L.. 1996. Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending Blumer’s Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Context. American Sociological Review 61(6): 951–972.Google Scholar
Bonilla Silva, Eduardo. 2004. From Bi-Racial to Tri-Racial: Towards a New System of Racial Stratification in the USA. Ethnic and Racial Studies 6: 931–950.Google Scholar
Branscombe, Nyla R., Schmitt, Michael T., and Harvey, Richard D.. 1999. Perceiving Pervasive Discrimination among African Americans: Implications for Group Identification and Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77(1): 135–149.Google Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn B. 1999. The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love or Outgroup Hate? Journal of Social Issues 55(3): 429–444.Google Scholar
Brown, Ronald E., and Davis, Darren W.. 2002. The Antipathy of Black Nationalism: Behavioral and Attitudinal Implications of an African American Ideology. American Journal of Political Science 46(2): 239–252.Google Scholar
Brown, Timothy A. 2007. Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cain, Bruce E., Roderick Kiwiet, D., and Uhlaner, Carole J.. 1991. The Acquisition of Partisanship by Latinos and Asian Americans. American Journal of Political Science 35(2): 390–422.Google Scholar
Carter, Niambi M. 2019. American while Black: African Americans, Immigration, and the Limits of Citizenship. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Carter, Niambi, and Pérez, Efrén O. 2016. Race and Nation: How Racial Hierarchy Shapes National Attachments. Political Psychology 37(4): 497–513.Google Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2012. Constructivist Theories of Ethnic Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Citrin, Jack, Wong, Cara, and Duff, Brian. 2001. The Meaning of American National Identity. In Ashore, R. D., Jussim, L., and Wilder, D., eds., Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict, and Conflict Reduction. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 71–100.Google Scholar
Citrin, Jack, Lerman, Amy, Murakami, Michael, and Pearson, Kathryn. 2007. Testing Huntington: Is Hispanic Immigration a Threat to American Identity? Perspectives on Politics 5(1): 31–48.Google Scholar
Collier, David, and Mahon, James E.. 1993. Conceptual “Stretching” Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis. American Political Science Review 87(4): 845–855.Google Scholar
Cortez, David. 2017. Broken Mirrors: Identity, Duty, and Belonging in an Age of the New La(tinx) Migra. Dissertation. Cornell University.Google Scholar
Cortez, David. 2020. Latinxs in La Migra: Why They Join and Why it Matters. Political Research Quarterly.Google Scholar
Cortland, Clarissa, Craig, Maureen A., Shapiro, Jenessa R., Richeson, Jennifer A., Neel, Rebecca, and Goldstein, Noah. 2017. Solidarity through Shared Disadvantage: Highlighting Shared Experiences of Discrimination Improves Relations Between Stigmatized Groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 113(4): 547–567.Google Scholar
Craig, Maureen A., and Richeson, Jennifer A.. 2014. On the Precipice of a “Majority-Minority” Nation: Perceived Status Threat from the Racial Demographic Shift Affects White Americans’ Political Ideology. Psychological Science 25(6): 1189–1197.Google Scholar
Craig, Maureen A., and Richeson, Jennifer A.. 2018. Hispanic Population Growth Engenders Conservative Shift Among Non-Hispanic Racial Minorities. Social Psychological and Personality Science 9(4): 383–392.Google Scholar
Craig, Maureen A., Zou, Linda, Bai, (Max) Hui, and Lee, Michelle M.. n.d. Stereotypes about Political Attitudes and Coalitions among U.S. Racial Groups: Implications for Strategic Political Decision-Making. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Cutaia Wilkinson, Betina. 2015. Partners or Rivals? Power and Latino, Black, and White Relations in the Twenty-First Century. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Danbold, Felix, and Huo, Yuen. 2015. No Longer All-American? Whites’ Defensive Reactions to their Numerical Decline. Social Psychological and Personality Science 6: 210–218.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1994. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 2000. Slowly Coming to Grips with the Effects of the American Racial Order on American Policy Preferences. In Sears, D. O., Sidanius, J., and Bobo, L., eds., Racialized Politics: The Debate about Racism in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 344–357.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 2001. Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 2011. Not in Our Lifetimes: The Future of Black Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Devos, Thierry, and Banaji, Mahzarin R.. 2005. American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88(3): 447–466.Google Scholar
Diamond, J. 1998. African American Attitudes toward United States Immigration Policy. International Migration Review 32(2): 451–470.Google Scholar
Ellemers, Naomi, and Jetten, Jolanda. 2013. The Many Ways to be Marginal in a Group. Personality and Social Psychology Review 17(1): 3–21.Google Scholar
Ellemers, Naomi, Spears, Russell, and Doosje, Bertjan. 2002. Self and Social Identity. Annual Review of Psychology 53: 161–186.Google Scholar
Flores, Stella, Park, Toby J., Viano, Samantha L., and Coca, Vanessa M.. 2017. State Policy and the Educational Outcomes of English Learner and Immigrant Students: Three Administrative Data Stories. American Behavioral Scientist 61(14): 1824–1844.Google Scholar
Franklin, John Hope. 1947. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Fritz, Matthew S., and MacKinnon, David P.. 2007. Required Sample Size to Detect the Mediated Effect. Psychological Science 18(3): 233–239.Google Scholar
Gaertner, Samuel L., Dovidio, John F., Rust, Mary C. et al. 1999. Reducing Intergroup Bias: Elements of Intergroup Cooperation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76(3): 388–402.Google Scholar
García, John A. 2012. Latino Politics in America: Community, Culture, and Interests. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Garcia Bedolla, Lisa. 2005. Fluid Borders: Latino Power, Identity, and Politics in Los Angeles. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gay, Claudine. 2006. Seeing Difference: The Effect of Economic Disparity on Black Attitudes toward Latinos. American Journal of Political Science 50(4): 982–997.Google Scholar
Goh, Jin X., Hall, Judith A., and Rosenthal, Robert. 2016. Mini-Meta Analysis of Your Own Studies: Some Arguments on Why and a Primer on How. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 10: 535–549.Google Scholar
Greer, Christina M. 2013. Black Ethnics: Race, Immigration, and the Pursuit of the American Dream. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gusfield, Joseph R. 1963. Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Hajnal, Zoltan L., and Lee, Taeku. 2012. Why Americans Don’t Join the Party: Race, Immigration, and the Failure (of Political Parties) to Engage the Electorate. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Harris-Lacewell, Melissa. 2004. Barbershops, Bibles, and BET: Everyday Talk and Black Political Thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Higginbotham Brooks, Evelyn. 1993. Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Daniel J., Kaiser, Cheryl R., Pérez, Efrén O, Hagá, Sara, Ramos, Corin, and Zárate, Michael. 2020. Journal of Experimental Political Science 7(2): 112–136.Google Scholar
Jacobson, Matthew Frye. 1998. Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Jetten, Jolanda, Branscombe, Nyla R., Spears, Russell, and McKimmie, Blake M.. 2003. Predicting the Path of Peripherals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29: 130–140.Google Scholar
Jiménez, Tomás J. 2010. Replenished Ethnicity: Mexican Americans, Immigration, and Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Jiménez, Tomás J. 2017. The Other Side of Assimilation: How Immigrants Are Changing American Life. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Jiménez, Tomás R. , and Horowitz, Adam L. 2013. When White is Just Alright: How Immigrants Redefine Achievement and Reconfigure the Ethnoracial Hierarchy. American Sociological Review 78(5): 849–871.Google Scholar
Jost, John T., and Liviatan, Jost. 2007. False Consciousness. In Baumeister, R. F. and Vohs, K. D., eds., Encyclopedia of Social Psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 100–103.Google Scholar
Junn, Jane. 2007. From Coolie to Model Minority: U.S. Immigration Policy and the Construction of Racial Identity. DuBois Review 4(2): 355–373.Google Scholar
Junn, Jane, and Masuoka, Natalie. 2008. Asian American Identity: Shared Racial Status and Political Context. Perspective on Politics 6(4): 729–740.Google Scholar
Katz, Daniel. 1960. The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly 24: 163–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Claire Jean. 1999. The Racial Triangulation of Asian Americans. Politics and Society 27(1): 105–138.Google Scholar
Kim, Claire Jean. 2003. Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black-Korean Conflict in New York City. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
King, Desmond. 2000. Making Americans: Immigration and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kuo, Alexander, Malhotra, Neil, and Mo, Cecilia Hyunjung. 2017. Social Exclusion and Political Identity: The Case of Asian American Partisanship. Journal of Politics 79: 17–32.Google Scholar
Lajevardi, Nazita. 2020. Outsiders at Home: The Politics of American Islamophobia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leach, Colin Wayne, van Zomeren, Martjin, Zebel, Sven et al. 2008. Group-Level Self-Definition and Self-Investment: A Hierarchical (Multicomponent) Model of In-Group Identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95(1): 144–165.Google Scholar
Lee Merseth, Julie. 2018. Race-ing Solidarity: Asian Americans and Support for Black Lives Matter. Politics, Groups, and Identities 6(3): 337–356.Google Scholar
Lee, Jennifer, and Bean, Frank D.. 2010. The Diversity Paradox: Immigration and the Color Line in 21st Century America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Lee, Jennifer, and Zhou, Min. 2015. The Asian American Achievement Paradox. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Lee, Taeku. 2002. Mobilizing Public Opinion: Black Insurgency and Racial Attitudes in the Civil Rights Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lee, Taeku. 2008. Race, Immigration, and the Identity-to-Politics Link. Annual Review of Political Science 11: 457–478.Google Scholar
Lien, , Pei-te, M. Conway, Margaret, and Wong, Janelle. 2004. The Politics of Asian Americans: Diversity and Community. New York: Routledge Press.Google Scholar
Lowery, Brian S., Knowles, Eric D., and Unzueta, Miguel M.. 2007. Framing Inequity Safely: Whites’ Motivated Perceptions of Racial Privilege. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33(9): 1237–1250.Google Scholar
Malhotra, Neil, Margalit, Yotam, and Mo, Cecilia Hyungjung. 2013. Economic Explanations for Opposition to Immigration: Distinguishing Between Prevalence and Conditional Impact. American Journal of Political Science 57(2): 391–410.Google Scholar
Mancilla-Martínez, Jeannette, and Jacoby, Jennifer Wallace. 2018. The Influence of Risk Factors on Preschoolers’ Spanish Vocabulary Development in the Context of Spanish Instruction. Early Education and Development 29(4): 563–580.Google Scholar
Marx, Anthony W. 1998. Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of the United States, South Africa, and Brazil. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mason, Lilliana. 2018. Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Masuoka, Natalie R., and Junn, Jane. 2013. The Politics of Belonging: Race, Public Opinion, and Immigration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McClain, Paula D., and Johnson Carew, Jessica D. 2017. “Can We All Get along?” Racial and Ethnic Minorities in American Politics. New York: Westview Press.Google Scholar
McClain, Paula D., and Karnig, Albert K.. 1990. Black and Hispanic Socioeconomic and Political Competition. American Political Science Review 84(2): 535–545.Google Scholar
McClain, Paula D., Carter, Niambi M., DeFrancesco Soto, Victoria M. et al. 2005. Racial Distancing in a Southern City: Latino Immigrants’ Views of Black Americans. Journal of Politics 68(3): 571–584.Google Scholar
McClain, Paula D., Lyle, Monique L., Carter, Niambi M. et al. 2007. Black Americans and Latino Immigrants in a Southern City. DuBois Review 4(1): 97–117.Google Scholar
McClain, Paula D., Johnson Carew, Jessica D., Walton, Eugene Jr., and Watts, Candis S.. 2009. Group Membership, Group Identity, and Group Consciousness: Measures of Racial Identity in American Politics? Annual Review of Political Science 12: 471–485.Google Scholar
Mora, G. Cristina. 2014. Making Hispanics: How Activists, Bureaucrats, and Media Constructed a New American. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mutz, Diana C. 2018. Status Threat, Not Economic Hardship, Explains the 2016 Presidential Vote Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(19): 4330–4339.Google Scholar
Nagel, Joane. 1996. American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nakanishi, Don T. 1991. The Next Swing Vote? Asian Pacific Americans and California Politics. In Jackson, B. O. and Preston, M. B., eds., Racial and Ethnic Politics in California. Berkeley: IGS Press, pp. 25–54.Google Scholar
Ngai, Mae. 2004. Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Omi, Michael, and Winant, Howard. 1986. Racial Formation in the United States: From the Sixties to the Nineties. New York: Routledge Press.Google Scholar
Oskooii, Kassra. 2016. How Discrimination Impacts Sociopolitical Behavior: A Multidimensional Perspective. Political Psychology 37(5): 613–640.Google Scholar
Oskooii, Kassra A. R. 2020. Perceived Discrimination and Political Behavior. British Journal of Political Science 50(3): 867–892.Google Scholar
Pantoja, Adrian D., Ramirez, Ricardo, and Segura, Gary M.. 2001. Citizens by Choice, Voters by Necessity: Patterns in Political Mobilization by Naturalized Latinos. Political Research Quarterly 54(4): 729–750.Google Scholar
Parker, Christopher S. 2009. Fighting for Democracy: Black Veterans and the Struggle against White Supremacy in the Postwar South. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Parker, Christopher Sebastian, and Barreto, Matt A.. 2013. Change They Can’t Believe In: The Tea Party and Reactionary Politics in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2010. Explicit Evidence on the Import of Implicit Attitudes: The IAT and Immigration Policy Judgments. Political Behavior 32(4): 517–545.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2015a. Ricochet: How Elite Discourse Politicizes Racial and Ethnic Identities. Political Behavior 37(1): 155–180.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2015b. Xenophobic Rhetoric and Its Political Effects on Immigrants and Their Co-Ethnics. American Journal of Political Science 59(3): 549–564.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2016. Unspoken Politics: Implicit Attitudes and Political Thinking. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2020. “People of Color” are Protesting: Here’s What You Need to Know about This New Identity. Washington Post (The Monkey Cage).Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2021. Diversity’s Child: People of Color and the Politics of Identity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. , and Hetherington, Marc J.. 2014. Authoritarianism in Black and White: Testing the Cross-Racial Validity of the Child-Rearing Scale. Political Analysis 22: 398–412.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O., Deichert, Maggie, and Engelhardt, Andrew M.. 2019. E Pluribus Unum? How Ethnic and National Identity Motivate Reactions to a Political Ideal. Journal of Politics 81(4): 1420–1433.Google Scholar
Philpot, Tasha S. 2017. Conservative but Not Republican: The Paradox of Party Identification and Ideology among African Americans. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Reny, Tyler T., and Barreto, Matt A.. 2020. Xenophobia in the Time of Pandemic: Othering, Anti-Asian Attitudes, and COVID-19. Politics, Groups, and Identities. Latest Articles.Google Scholar
Rogers, Reuel. 2006. Afro-Caribbean Immigrants and the Politics of Incorporation: Ethnicity, Exception, or Exit. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sakamoto, Arthur, Goyette, Kimberly A., and Kim, ChanHwan. 2009. Socioeconomic Attainment of Asian Americans. Annual Review of Sociology 35: 255–276.Google Scholar
Sanchez, Gabriel R., and Masuoka, Natalie. 2010. Brown-Utility Heuristic? The Presence and Contributing Factors of Linked Fate. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 32(4): 519–531.Google Scholar
Sartori, Giovanni. 1970. Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics. American Political Science Review 64: 1033–1053.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Michael T., and Branscombe, Nyla R.. 2001. The Good, the Bad, and the Manly: Threats to One’s Prototypicality and Evaluations of Fellow In-Group Members. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37(6): 510–517.Google Scholar
Sears, David O., and Savalei, Victoria. 2006. The Political Color Line in America: Many “Peoples of Color” or Black Exceptionalism. Political Psychology 27(6): 895–924.Google Scholar
Sears, David O. 2015. The American Color Line and Black Exceptionalism. In Forgas, J. P., Fiedler, K., and Crano, W. R., eds., Social Psychology and Politics. New York: Psychology Press, pp. 337–352.Google Scholar
Sherif, Muzafer, Harvey, O. J., White, B. Jack, Hood, William R., and Sherif, Carolyn W.. 1961. The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Shih, Margaret, Pittinsky, Todd L., and Ambady, Nalini. 1999. Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance. Psychological Science 10(1): 80–83.Google Scholar
Shrout, Patrick E., and Bolger, Niall. 2002. Mediation in Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies: New Procedures and Recommendations. Psychological Methods 7(4): 422–445.Google Scholar
Sidanius, Jim, Feshbach, Seymour, Levin, Shana, and Pratto, Felicia. 1997. The Interface Between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance? Public Opinion Quarterly 61(1): 102–133.Google Scholar
Sidanius, Jim, and Pratto, Felicia. 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sidanius, James, and Petrocik, John R.. 2001. Communal and National Identity in a Multiethnic State: A Comparison of Three Perspectives. In Ashmore, R. D., Jussim, L., and Wilder, D., eds., Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict, and Conflict Reduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 101–127.Google Scholar
Silber Mohamed, Heather. 2017. The New Americans? Immigration, Protest, and the Politics of Latino Identity. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
Sirin, Cigdem V., Valentino, Nicholas A., and Villalobos, José D. 2016. Group Empathy in Response to Nonverbal Racial/Ethnic Cues: A National Experiment on Immigration Policy Attitudes. American Behavioral Scientist 60(14): 1676–1697.Google Scholar
Sniderman, Paul M., and Piazza, Thomas. 2002. Black Pride and Black Prejudice. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sue, Stanley, and Okazaki, Sumie. 1990. Asian American Educational Achievements: A Phenomenon in Search of an Explanation. American Psychologist 45(8): 913–920.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri. 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, John C.. 1986. The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior. In Austin, W. G. and Worchel, S., eds., Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago: Hall Publishers, 7–24.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., and Flament, Claude. 1971. Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology 1(2): 149–178.Google Scholar
Takaki, Ronald. 1989. Strangers from Different Shores: A History of Asian Americans. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company.Google Scholar
Tam Cho, Wendy. 1995. Asians – A Monolithic Voting Bloc? Political Behavior 17: 223–49.Google Scholar
Tate, Katherine. 1991. Black Political Participation in the 1984 and 1988 Presidential Elections. American Political Science Review 85(4): 1159–1176.Google Scholar
Tate, Katherine. 2000. Black Faces in the Mirror: African Americans and Their Representatives in Congress. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Tavits, Margit, and Pérez, Efrén O 2019. Language Influences Mass Opinion toward Gender and LGBTQ Equality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(34): 16781–16786.Google Scholar
Telles, Edward, and Ortiz, Vilma. 2008. Generations of Exclusion: Mexican-Americans, Assimilation, and Race. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Telles, Edward, and Sue, Christina A.. 2019. Durable Ethnicity: Mexican Americans and the Ethnic Core. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Telles, Edward, Sawyer, Mark, and Rivera-Salgado, Gaspar. 2011. Just Neighbors? Research on African American and Latino Relations in the United States. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Transue, John E. 2007. Identity Salience, Identity Acceptance, and Racial Policy Attitudes: American Identity as a Uniting Force. American Journal of Political Science 51(1): 78–91.Google Scholar
Tseng, Vivian, Chao, Ruth K., and Padmawidjaja, Inna Artai. 2007. Asian Americans’ Educational Experiences. In Leong, F. T. L., Ebreo, A., Kinoshita, L., Inman, A. G., and L. H., eds., Handbook of Asian American Psychology. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, pp. 105–123.Google Scholar
Tuan, Mia. 1998. Forever Foreigners or Honorary Whites? The Asian Ethnic Experience Today. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Tuan, Mia. 1998. Forever Foreigners or Honorary Whites: The Asian Ethnic Experience Today. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Turner, John C., Hogg, Michael A., Oakes, Penelope J., Reicher, Stephen D., and Wetherell, Margaret S.. 1987. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. New York: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Vaca, Nicolas. 2004. The Presumed Alliance: The Unspoken Conflict Between Latinos and Blacks and What it Means for America. New York: Rayo.Google Scholar
Vidal-Ortiz, Salvador. 2008. People of color. In Schaefer, R. T., ed., Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 103–107.Google Scholar
Waldzus, Sven, Mummendey, Amélie, Wenzel, Michael, and Boettcher, Franziska. 2004. Of Bikers, Teachers, and Germans: Groups’ Diverging Views about their Prototypicality. British Journal of Social Psychology 43: 385–400.Google Scholar
Watts Smith, Candis. 2014. Black Mosaic: The Politics of Black Pan-Ethnicity. New York: NYU Press.Google Scholar
Wenzel, Michael, Mummendey, Amélie, and Waldzus, Sven. 2007. Superordinate Identities and Intergroup Conflict: The Ingroup Projection Model. European Review of Social Psychology 18(1): 331–372.Google Scholar
White, Ismail K. 2007. When Race Matters and When It Doesn’t: Racial Group Differences in Response to Racial Cues. American Political Science Review 101(2): 339–354.Google Scholar
White, Ismail K., and Laird, Chryl N.. 2020. Steadfast Democrats: How Social Forces Shape Black Political Behavior. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
White, Ismail K., Laird, Chryl N., and Allen, Troy D.. 2014. Selling Out? The Politics of Navigating Conflicts Between Racial Group Interest and Self-Interest. American Political Science Review 108(4): 783–800.Google Scholar
Wong, Janelle. 2005. Mobilizing Asian American Voters: A Field Experiment. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 601(1): 102–114.Google Scholar
Wong, , Janelle, S. Ramakrishnan, Karthick, Lee, Taeku, and Junn, Jane. 2011. Asian American Political Participation: Emerging Constituents and Their Political Identities. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Xu, Jun, and Lee, Jennifer C.. 2013. The Marginalized “Model” Minority: An Empirical Examination of the Racial Triangulation of Asian Americans. Social Forces 91: 1363–1397.Google Scholar
Zepeda-Millán, Chris. 2017. Latino Mass Mobilization: Immigration, Racialization, and Activism. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zhao, Xinshu, Lynch, John G. Jr., and Chen, Qimi. 2010. Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis. Journal of Consumer Research 37: 197–206.Google Scholar
Zou, Linda X., and Cheryan, Sapna. 2017. Two Axes of Subordination: A New Model of Racial Position. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 112(5): 696–717.Google Scholar
Accessibility standard: Unknown
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this Element is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.