[1] E. San Juan Jr., Racism and Cultural Studies (Duke University Press, 2002), 9.

[2] Carl A. Grant and Joy L. Lei, eds., Global Constructions of Multicultural Education (London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001).

[3] Nakajima Tomoko, Tabunka kyoiku to zainichi chosenjin kyoiku (Kyoto: Zenkoku zainichi chosenjin kyoiku kenkyu kyogikai, 1995), 45.

[4] Much of the following discussion is based on my fieldwork in Osaka between 2001 and 2006. I interviewed activists and researchers.

[5] Stephen May, “Critical Multicultural Education and Cultural Difference: Avoiding Essentialism,” in May, ed., Critical Multiculturalism: Rethinking Multicultural and Antiracist Education (London: Falmer Press, 1999), 5.

[6] Baogang He and Will Kymlicka, “Introduction,” in Kymlicka and He, Multiculturalism in Asia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 23.

[7] Grant and Lei, Global Constructions, xv.

[8] Stanley Fish, “Boutique Multiculturalism, or Why Liberals are Incapable of Thinking about Hate Speech,” Critical Inquiry 23 (1997): 378-95.

[9] Matsunami Megumi, “Nyukama jissen ni miru kyoshi no ‘zainichi gaikokujin kyoiku’ kan,” in Nakajima Tomoko, ed., 1970 nendai iko no zainichi KankokuChosenjin kyoiku-kenkyu to jissen no taikeiteki kenkyu (Osaka: Poole Gakuin University, 2004), 194.

[10] Enoi Yukari, “Tabunka kyosei kyoiku to kokusai jinken,” Kaiho kyoiku 397 (2001): 8-17.

[11] May, “Critical Multicultural Education,” 11.

[12] The new nationality law of 2000 allows children born in Germany to non-German parents to hold both a passport of their parents' nationality and a German passport until age twenty-three. Germany has been increasingly seen as a country of immigration.

[13] Okano Kaori, “The Global-local Interface in Multicultural Education Policies in Japan,” Comparative Education 42.4 (2006): 473-91.

[14] San Juan, Racism, 9.

[15] Brett Klopp, German Multiculturalism: Immigrant Integration and the Transformation of Citizenship (London: Praeger, 2002), 187.

[16] Ralph Grillo, “Immigration and the Politics of Recognizing Difference in Italy,” in Grillo and Jeff Pratt, eds., The Politics of Recognizing Difference: Multiculturalism Italian-style (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002).

[17] Okano, “Global-local.”

[18] Nakajima Tomoko, “‘Bunka’ ‘jinken’ ni okeru ‘kokoro-shugi’ to ‘kotoba-shugi,‘” Human Rights Education Review 1.1 (1997): 25-30.

[19] Jeffry T. Hester, “Kids between Nations: Ethnic Classes in the Construction of Korean Identities in Japanese Public Schools,” in Sonia Ryang, ed., Koreans in Japan: Critical Voices from the Margin (New York: Routledge, 2000), 193.

[20] Lee Changsoo, “Ethnic Education and National Politics,” in Lee and George DeVos, eds., Koreans in Japan: Ethnic Conflict and Accommodation (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981), 163-66.

[21] Ibid., 163-66.

[22] Sugitani Yoriko, “‘Kangaeru-kai’ no ayumi,” in Zenchokyo Osaka Kangaeru-kai, ed., Mukuge (Tokyo: Aki Shobo, 1981), 15-42.

[23] Mukuge, 30 (August 2001).

[24] Sugitani, “‘Kangaeru-kai’ no ayumi.”

[25] Lee, “ Ethnic Education,” 168-69. There were some schools affiliated with Mindan.

[26] Ozawa Yusaku, Zainichi Chosenjin Kyoikuron (Tokyo: Aki Shobo, 1973), 468.

[27] Sugitani, “‘Kangaeru-kai’ no ayumi.”

[28] Fukumoto Taku, “Changes in Korean Population Concentrations in Osaka City from the 1920s to the Early 1950s,” Jinbun Chiri 56.2 (2004): 42-57.

[29] Asahi Shinbun Osaka, 22 January 1957.

[30] Mukuge, 30 August 2001.

[31] Inatomi Susumu, Nihon Shakai no Kokusaika to Jinken Kyoiku (Osaka: Kinki Insatsu Puro, 2005), 3-5.

[32] ZOK is taken from the current name of the association, Zenchokyo Osaka Kangaeru-kai. ZOK publishes Mukuge, an organizational magazine.

[33] Mukuge 30, August 2001.

[34] Osaka-shi Minzoku Koshikai (OMK), Minzoku Gakkyu (Osaka: Yuniwârudo, 1997), 112.

[35] Sugitani, “Kangaeru-kai,” 21. Leftist members of ZOK were supportive of Chongryun, which defined its members as “overseas nationals of North Korea.”

[36] Mukuge, 30 April 1976.

[37] Mukuge, 30 August 2001.

[38] Mukuge, 30 August 2001.

[39] Japanese teachers donated money to support Korean lecturers.

[40] Mukuge, 30 August 2001.

[41] Inatomi, Nihon Shakai, 22.

[42] Sugitani, “Kangaeru-kai,” 22.

[43] Inatomi, Nihon Shakai, 26.

[44] Mukuge, 30 October 1976.

[45] Inatomi, Nihon Shakai, 6.

[46] OMK, Minzoku Gakkyu, 84.

[47] Sugitani, “Kangaeru-kai,” 27.

[48] Kishida Yumi, “Minzoku no tame no kyoiku to kyoiku no tame no minzoku,” in Nakajima, 1970 nendai iko, 42-59.

[49] Takatsuki City Board of Education (TCBE), Zainichi KankokuChosenjin mondai o kangaeru (Osaka: Takatsuki City, 1990).

[50] Mintoren, Hansabetsu to jinken no minzoku kyoiku o (Osaka: Mintoren, 1992), 12.

[51] Fukuoka Yasunori, Lives of Young Koreans in Japan (Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2000), 63.

[52] Sonia Nieto, Language, Culture, and Teaching: Critical Perspectives for a New Century (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002), 246-7.

[53] Sonia Nieto, Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education (New York: Longman, 1992), 208-21.

[54] Kodokyo, Kodokyo 30-nen no Ayumi (Osaka: ABC Kobo, 1991).

[55] Asahi Gurafu, 25 April 1969.

[56] TCBE, Zainichi, 82.

[57] Kodokyo, Kodokyo, 70.

[58] Fukuoka, Lives, 65.

[59] Ibid., 66.

[60] Abdul R. JanMohamed and David Lloyd, “Introduction: Minority Discourse,” Critique 7 (1987): 5-17.

[61] Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997), 8.

[62] Takatsuki Mukuge-no-kai (TM), Minzoku dakara Omoshiroi (Osaka: Mukuge-no-kai, 1992), 52.

[63] TM, Minzoku, 16-17.

[64] TM, Minzoku, 24.

[65] TM, Minzoku, 17.

[66] Kodokyo, Kodokyo, 74-82.

[67] Mintoren, Hansabetsu to Jinken no Minzoku Kyoiku o (Osaka: Mintoren Mintoren, 1992).

[68] Mukuge, 26 November 1979.

[69] About 10,000 Koreans have become Japanese nationals per year since the mid-1990s. More than 80 per cent of marriages involving Koreans are interethnic.

[70] Tai Eika, “Korean Activism and Ethnicity in the Changing Ethnic Landscape of Urban Japan,” Asian Studies Review 30 (2006): 41-58.

[71] The Korea NGO Centre was created in 2004 out of Minsokkyo and two other groups.

[72] Eika Tai, “‘Multicultural Co-living’ and its Potential,” The Journal of Human Rights 3 (2003): 41-52.

[73] Okano, “Global-local.”

[74] Matsunami, “Nyukama,” 196.

[75] Michelle Anne Lee, “Multiculturalism as Nationalism: a Discussion of Nationalism in Pluralistic Nations,” Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism XXX (2003): 103-23.

[76] David Chapman, “Discourses of Multicultural Coexistence (tabunka kyosei) and the ‘Old-comer’ Korean Residents of Japan,” Asian Ethnicity 7.1 (2006): 89-102, 100.