Hostname: page-component-7b7567c8c-fvjsw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-12T08:57:39.553Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Do gender differences in spatial skills mediate gender differences in mathematics among high-ability students?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

M. Beth Casey
M. Beth Casey
Affiliation:
Department of Counseling and Developmental Psychology and Research Methods, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167. caseyb@bcvms.bc.edu
Get accessRights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Based on Geary's theory, intelligence may determine which males utilize innate spatial knowledge to inform their mathematical solutions. This may explain why math gender differences occur mainly with higher abilities. In support, we found that mental rotation ability served as a mediator of gender differences on the math Scholastic Assessment Test for two high-ability samples. Our research suggests, however, that environment and biology interact to influence mental rotation abilities.

Information

Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , June 1996, pp. 247 - 248
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Ablard, K. W. & Stumpf, H. (1995) The contribution of inductive and deductive reasoning and spatial ability to mathematical reasoning ability. Unpublished manuscript, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD. [JCS]Google Scholar
Adey, P. & Shayer, M. (1994) Really raising standards. Routledge. [HTE]Google Scholar
Alexander, R. (1979) Darwinism and human affairs. University of Washington Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
American Association of University Women (1989) Equitable treatment of girls and boys in the classroom. [rDCG]Google Scholar
American Association of University Women (1992) How schools shortchange girls. AAUW Educational Foundation and the National Education Association. [CH]Google Scholar
Annett, M. (1985) Left, right, hand and brain: The right shift theory. Erlbaum. [TJC, rDCG]Google Scholar
Annett, M. (1993) The disadvantages of dextrality for intelligence-corrected findings. British Journal of Psychology 84:511–16. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Annett, M. (1995) The right shift theory of a genetic balanced polymorphism for cerebral dominance and cognitive processing. Cahiers de Psychologic Cognitive 14:427–80. [MBC, rDCG]Google Scholar
Antell, S. E. & Keating, D. P. (1983) Perception of numerical invariance in neonates. Child Development 54:695–701. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antill, J. K. & Cunningham, J. D. (1982) Sex differences in performance on ability tests as a function of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42:718–28. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, J. M. (1981) Achievement and participation of women in mathematics: Results from two national surveys. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 12:356–72. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asberger, H. (1944) Die ‘autistischen psyehopathen’ im kindesalter. Archiv fuer Psychiatric und Nervenkrankheiten 117:76–136. [UF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986) Working memory. Oxford University Press. [rDCG]Google ScholarPubMed
Baenninger, M. & Newcombe, N. (1989) The role of experience in spatial test performance: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles 20:327–44. [aDCG, NN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baenninger, M. (1995) Environmental input to the development of sex-related differences in spatial and mathematical ability. Learning and Individual Differences. 7:363–79 [aDCG, NN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. & Kliegel, R. (1992) Further testing of the limits of cognitive plasticity: Negative age differences in a mnemonic are robust. Developmental Psychology 28:121–25. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, M. (1994) Investigating change: A gender-inclusive course in calculus. Zentrallblatt für Didaktik der Mathematik 26(2):49–56. [MMK]Google Scholar
Beal, C. R. & Flavell, J. H. (1984) Development of the ability to distinguish communicative intention and literal message meaning. Child Development 55:920–28. [UF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, J. R. (1981) Differential treatment of females and males in mathematics classes. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 12:40–53. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1988) Sex differences in mathematical-reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents: Their nature, effects, and possible causes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:169–232. [arDCG, HT, AHZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1992) Academic achievement in mathematics and science of students between ages 13 and 23: Are there differences among students in the top one percent of mathematical ability? Journal of Educational Psychology 84:51–61. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbow, C. P. & Arjmand, O. (1990) Predictors of high academic achievement in mathematics and science by mathematically talented students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology 82:430–41. [MMK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbow, C. P. & Stanley, J. C. (1980) Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact? Science 210:1262–64. [aDCG, SFC, HT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benbow, C. P. & Stanley, J. C. (1983) Sex differences in mathematical-reasoning ability: More facts. Science 222:1029–31. [aDCC, HT, AHZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berenbaum, S. A. & Hines, M. (1992) Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science 3:203–6. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, M., Gladue, B. & Taylor, S. (1993) The effects of hormones, type A behavior pattern, and provocation on aggression in men. Motivation and Emotion 17 125–38. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betzig, L. (1989) Causes of conjugal dissolution: A cross-cultural study. Current Anthropology 30:654–76. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betzig, L. (1993) Sex, succession, and stratification in the first six civilizations: How powerful men reproduced, passed power on to their sons, and used power to defend their wealth, women, and children. In: Social stratification and socioeconomic inequality: vol. 1. A comparative biosodal analysis, ed. Ellis, L.. Praeger. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Block, J. (1993) Studying personality the long way. In: Studying lives through time: Personality and development, ed. Funder, D. C., Parke, R. D., Tomlinson-Keasey, C. & Widaman, K.. American Psychological Association. [aDCG, NN]Google Scholar
Blumenschine, R. J. & Cavallo, J. A. (1992) Scavenging and human evolution. Scientific American 267(4):90–97. [MMK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boysen, S. T. (1993) Counting in chimpanzees: Nonhuman principles and emergent properties of number. In: The development of numerical competence: Animal and human models, ed. Boysen, S. T. & Capaldi, E. J.. Erlbaum. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Boysen, S. T. & Bemtson, G. G. (1989) Numerical competence in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology 103:23–31. [aDCC, HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briars, D. & Siegler, R. S. (1984) A featural analysis of preschoolers' counting knowledge. Developmental Psychology 20:607–18. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, L. E. 91992) Gender differences on standardized examinations used for selecting applicants to graduate and professional schools. In: Talent development: vol. 1. Proceedings from the 1991 Harry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development, ed. Colangelo, N., Assouline, S. G. & Ambroson, D. L.. Unionville, NY: Trillium Press. [JCS]Google Scholar
Buffery, A. W. H. & Gray, J. A. (1972) Sex differences in the development of spatial and linguistic skills. In: Gender differences: Their ontogeny and significance, ed. Ounsted, C. & Taylor, D.. Churchill Livingstone. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Buhrmester, D. & Furman, W. (1987) The development of companionship and intimacy. Child Development 58:1101–13. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnett, S. A., Lane, D. M. & Dratt, L. M. (1979) Spatial visualization and sex differences in quantitative ability. Intelligence 3:345–54. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burton, L. (1994) Differential performance in assessment in mathematics at the end of compulsory schooling: A European comparison. In: Who counts? Mathematics achievement in Europe, ed. Burton, L.. Trentham Books. [MMK]Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1989) Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:1–49. [arDCG, AF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1994) The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. Basic Books. [rDCG]Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1995) Psychological sex differences: Origins through sexual selection. American Psychologist 50:164–68. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M. & Schmitt, D. P. (1993) Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review 100:204–12. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cai, J. & Silver, E. A. (1995) Do Chinese and U.S. students have similar difficulties? Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 26:491–97. [ASL]Google Scholar
Caplan, P. J., MacPherson, G. M. & Tobin, P. (1985) Do sex-related differences in spatial abilities exist? A multilevel critique with new data. American Psychologist 40:786–99. [aDCG, NN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, J. B. (1993) Human cognitive abilities. Cambridge University Press. [LGH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey, M. B. (in press) Understanding individual differences in spatial ability within females: A nature/nurture interactions framework. Developmental Review. [MBC]Google Scholar
Casey, M. B., Colón, D. & Goris, Y. (1992) Family handednessas a predictor of mental rotation ability among minority girls in a math-science training program. Brain and Cognition 18:88–96. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey, M. B. & Brabeck, M. M. (1989) Exceptions to the male advantage on spatial tasks: Family handedness and college major as factors identifying women who excel. Neuropsychologia 27:689–96. [MBC, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey, M. B. (1990) Women who excel on a spatial task: Proposed genetic and environmental factors. Brain and Cognition 12:73–84. [MBC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casey, M. B., Nuttall, R. L. & Benbow, C. P. (1995a) The importance of spatial ability on gender differences in mathematics college test scores across diverse samples. Developmental Psychology 31:697–705. [AD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey, M. B., Nuttall, R. L. & Pezaris, E. (1995b) Affective and spatial skill factors as mediators of gender differences in mathematics college entrance test scores. Submitted. [MBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey, M. B., Nuttall, R. L., Pezaris, E. & Benbow, C. P. (1995c) The influence of spatial ability on gender differences in mathematics college entrance scores across diverse samples. Developmental Psychology 31:697–705. [MBC, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey, M. B., Pezaris, E. & Nuttall, R. L. (1992) Spatial ability as a predictor of math achievement: The importance of sex and handedness patterns. Neuropsychologia 30:35–45. [AD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cattell, R. B. (1963) Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology 54:1–22. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1977) Yanomamo, the fierce people. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1988) Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science 239:985–92. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, K. & Gallistel, C. R. (1984) Testing the geometric power of an animal's spatial representation. In: Animal cognition, ed. Roitblat, H. L., Bever, T. G. & Terrace, H. S.. Erlbaum. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Chipman, S. F., Krantz, D. H. & Silver, R. (1992) Mathematics anxiety and science careers among able college women. Psychological Science 3:292–95. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chipman, S. F. & Thomas, V. G. (1985) Women's participation in mathematics: Outlining the problem. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. Erlbaum. [aDCG, SFC, DEK]Google Scholar
Christiansen, K. & Knussman, R. (1987) Sex hormones and cognitive functioning in men. Neuropsychobiology 18:27–36. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Churchland, P. (1986) Neurophilosophy. MIT Press. [HTE]Google Scholar
Collaer, M. L or Hines, M. (1995) Human behavioral sex differences: A role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychological Bulletin 118:55–107. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connor, J. A. & Serbin, L. A. (1985) Visual-spatial skill: Is it important for mathematics? Can it be taught? In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chapman, S., Bush, L. & Wilson, A.. Erlbaum. [AD]Google Scholar
Coombs, C. H. (1941) A factorial study of number ability. Psychometrika 6:161–89. [aDCC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, R. G. Jr, (1984) Early number development: Discovering number space with addition and subtraction. In: Origins of cognitive skills: The eighteenth Carnegie symposium on cognition, ed. Sophian, C.. Erlbaum. [aDCC]Google Scholar
Corballis, M. C., Lee, K., McManus, I. C. & Crow, T. J. (in press) Location of the handedness gene on the X and Y chromosomes. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Neuropsychiatric Genetics. [TJC]Google Scholar
Cosmides, L. (1989) The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task. Cognition 31:187–276. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courant, R. & Robbins, H. (1943) What is mathematics? Oxford University Press. [ASL]Google Scholar
Cronin, H. (1991) The ant and the peacock. Cambridge University Press. [rDCG]Google Scholar
Crow, T. J. (1993) Sexual selection. Machiavellian intelligence and the origins of psychosis. Lancet 342:594–98. [TJC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crow, T. J. (1994) The case for an X-Y homologous determinant of cerebral asymmetry. Cytogenctic and Cell Genetics 67:393–94. [TJC]Google Scholar
Crump, T. (1990) The anthropology of numbers. Cambridge University Press. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1983) Sex, evolution, and behavior, 2d ed.PWS Publishers. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988) Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide. Science 242:519–24. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darwin, C. (1859) The origin of species by means of natural selection. John Murray. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Daly, M. (1871) The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. Modern Library. [arDCG, MTG]Google Scholar
Dauber, S. L. (1992) Gender differences on the PSAT-M, PSAT-V, SAT-M, SATV, TSWE and ACT among college-bound high school students. In: Talent developtnent: vol. I. Proceedings from the 1991 Harry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development, ed. Colangelo, N., Assouline, S. G. & Ambroson, D. L.. Unionville, NY: Trillium Press. [JCS]Google Scholar
Davis, H. (1992) Transitive inference in rats (Rattus norvegicus). Journal of Comparative Psychology 106:342–49. [HD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, H. & Bradford, S. A. (1986) Counting behavior by rats simulated natural environment. Ethology 73:265–80. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, H. (1991) Numerically restricted food intake in the rat in a free-feeding stituution. Animal Learning & Behavior 19:215–22. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, H. & Memmott, J. (1982) Counting behavior in animals: A critical evaluation. Psychological Bulletin 92:547–71. [aDCG, HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, H. & Perusse, R. (1988) Numerical competence in animals: Definitional issues, current evidence, and a new research agenda. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:561–615. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeFries, J. C., Ashton, G. C., Johnson, R. C., Kuse, A. R., McClearn, G. E., Mi, M. P., Rashad, M. N., Vandenberg, S. G. & Wilson, J. R. (1976) Parentoffspring resemblance for specific cognitive abilities in two ethnic groups. Nature 261:131–33. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, M. C., Johnson, R. E. & Ehlert, J. (1979) A comparison of cortical thickness in male and female rats – normal and gonadectomized, young and adult. Behavioral and Neural Biology 26:485–91. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, R., Carey, S. & Back, K. J. (1983) Cenetic influences on the development of spatial skills during early adolescence. Cognition 13:167–85. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorans, N. J. & Livingston, S. A. (1987) Male-female differences in SAT-verbal ability among students of high SAT-mathematical ability. Journal of Educational Measurement 24:65–71. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dye, N. W. & Very, P. S. (1968) Growth changes in factorial structure by age and sex. Genetic Psychology Monographs 78:55–88. [aDCG]Google ScholarPubMed
Eagly, A. H. & Steffen, V. J. (1986) Gender and aggressive behavior: A metaanalytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin 100:309–30. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eals, M. & Silverman, I. (1994) The hunter-gatherer theory of spatial sex differences: Proximate factors mediating the female advantage in recall of object arrays. Ethology and Sociobiology 15:95–105. [DFH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaton, W. O. & Enns, L. R. (1986) Sex differences in human motor activity level. Psychological Bulletin 100:19–28. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eccles (Parsons), J., Adler, T. & Meece, J. L. (1984) Sex differences in achievement: A test of alternative theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46:26–43. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Eccles, J. S. & Jacobs, J. E. (1986) Social forces shape math attitudes and performance. Signs 11:367–80. [SFC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eccles, J., Wigfield, A., Harold, R. D. & Blumenfeld, P. (1993) Age and gender differences in children's self- and task-perceptions during elementary school. Child Development 64:830–47. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989) Human ethology. Aldine de Cruyter. [arDCG, NN]Google Scholar
Eldredge, N. (1986) Time frames. Simon & Schuster. [ASL]Google Scholar
Ellis, H. (1984)Man and woman: A study of human secondary sexual characteristics. Scribner. [JAS]Google Scholar
Epstein, H. T. (1974) Phrenoblysis: Special brain and mind growth periods: 1. Human brain and skull development. Developmental Psychobiology 7:207–16. [HTE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, H. T. (1980) EEC developmental stages. Developmental Psuchobiology 13:129–31. [HTE]Google Scholar
Epstein, H. T. (1986) Stages in human brain development. Developmental Brain Research 30:114–19. [HTE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, H. T. (1995) Brain, mind, and education. Garland. [HTE]Google Scholar
Erwin, R. J., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., Skolnick, B., Mawhinney-Hee, M. & Smailis, J. (1992) Facial emotion discrimination: 1. Task construction and behavioral findings in normal subjects. Psychiatry Research 42:231–40. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ethington, C. A. (1990) Gender differences in mathematics: An international perspective. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education 21:74–80. [SFC, rDCG]Google Scholar
Eves, H. (1972) A survey of geometry (rev. ed.). Allyn and Bacon. [ASL]Google Scholar
Fagan, J. F. (1972) Infants' recognition memory for faces. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 14:453–76. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fausto-Sterling, A. (1985) Myths of gender. Basic Books. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Feingold, A. (1988) Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. American Psychologist 43:95–103. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feingold, A. (1992a) Sex differences in variability in intellectual abilities: A new look at an old controversy. Review of Educational Research 62:61–84. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feingold, A. (1992b) Gender differences in mate selection preferences: A test of the parental investment model. Psychological Bulletin 112:125–39. [AF, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feingold, A. (1994a) Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 116:429–56. [AF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feingold, A. (1994b) Gender differences in variability in intellectual abilities: A crosscultural perspective. Sex Roles 30:81–92. [AF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feingold, A. (1995) The additive effects of differences in central tendency and variability are important in comparisons between groups. American Psychologist 50:5–13. [aDCG, AHZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feingold, A. (1996) Cognitive gender differences: Where are they, and why are they there? Learning and Individual Differences 8:25–32. [AF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennema, E. & Sherman, J. (1977) Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization and affective factors. American Educational Research Journal 14:51–71. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennema, E. & Tartre, L. A. (1985) The use of spatial visualization in mathematics by girls and boys. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education 16:184–206. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennema, E., Wolleat, P. L., Pedro, J. D. & Becker, A. D. (1981) Increasing women's participation in mathematics: An intervention study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 12:3–14. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, M. W. J. (1985) Short and sweet: The classic male life? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8 448–449. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, R. B. (1995) Yanomami warfare: A political history. SAR Press. [CH]Google Scholar
Ferrini-Mundy, J. (1987) Spatial training for calculus students: Sex differences in achievement and in visualization ability. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 18:126–40. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitch, R. H. & Denenberg, V. H. (1995) A role for ovarian hormones in differentiation of the brain. Psycoloquy 6: sex-brain.1.fitch. [rDCG]Google Scholar
Frayer, D. W. & Wolpoff, M. H. (1985) Sexual dimorphism. Annual Review of Anthropology 14:429–73. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, L. (1995) The space factor in mathematics: Gender differences. Review of Educational Research 65:22–50. [aDCG, AD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frith, U. (1989) Autism: Explaining the enigma. Blackwell. [UF]Google Scholar
Frith, U. & Happé, F. G. E. (1994) Autism: Beyond theory of mind. Cognition 50:115–32. [UF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furstenberg, F. F. Jr & Nord, C. W. (1985) Parenting apart: Patterns of childrearing after marital disruption. Journal of Marriage and the Family 47:893–904. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuson, K. C. (1988) Children's counting and concepts of number. Springer-Verlag. [aDCG, HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuson, K. C. & Kwon, Y. (1992) Korean children's understanding of multidigit addition and subtraction. Child Development 63:491–506. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galea, L. A. & Kimura, D. (1993) Sex differences in route-learning. Personality and Individual Differences 14:53–65. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallistel, C. R. (1990) Organization of learning. MIT Press/Bradford Books. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Gallistel, C. R. & Gelman, R. (1992) Preverbal and verbal counting and computation. Cognition 44:43–74. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaulin, S. J. C. (1992) Evolution of sex differences in spatial ability. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 35:125–51. [arDCG, NN, HT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (1989) A model for representing gender differences in the pattern of cognitive abilities. American Psychologist 44:1155–56. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (1992) Evolution of human cognition: Potential relationship to the ontogenetic development of behavior and cognition. Evolution and Cognition 1:93–100. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Geary, D. C. (1994) Children's mathematical development: Research and practical applications. American Psychological Association. [aDCG, JWG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (1995a) Reflections of evolution and culture in children's cognition: Implications for mathematical development and instruction. American Psychologist 50:24–37. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C. (1995b) Sexual selection and sex differences in spatial cognition. Learning and Individual Differences 7:289–301. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (1996) Response: A biosocial model for studying cognitive sex differences. Learning and Individual Differences 8:55–60. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. & Burlingham-Dubree, M. (1989) External validation of the strategy choice model for addition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 47:175–92. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. & Widaman, K. F. (1992) Numerical cognition: On the convergence of componential and psychometic models. Intelligence 16:47–80. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelman, R. (1990) First principles organize attention to and learning about relevant data: Number and the animate-inanimate distinction as examples. Cognitive Science 14:79–106. [arDCG]Google Scholar
Gelman, R. (1993) A rational-constructivist account of early learning about numbers and objects. In: The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, ed. Medin, D. L.. Academic Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Gelman, R. & Gallistel, C. R. (1978) The child's understanding of number. Harvard University Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. & Galaburda, A. S. (1987) Cerebral laterality. MIT Press. [NN]Google Scholar
Ghiglieri, M. P. (1987) Sociobiology of the great apes and the hominid ancestor. journal of Human Evolution 16:319–57. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1969) The triumph of the Darwinian method, 1st ed.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1978) The economy of the body. American Economic Review 68:233–37. [MTG]Google Scholar
Gilger, J. W. & Ho, H.-Z. (1989) Gender differences in adult spatial information processing: Their relationship to pubertal timing, adolescent activities, and sex-typing of personality. Cognitive Development 4:197–214. [arDCG, JWG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ginsburg, H. P., Posner, J. K. & Russell, R. L. (1981) The development of mental addition as a function of schooling and culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 12:163–78. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ginsburg, H. P. & Russell, R. L. (1981) Social class and racial influences on early mathematical thinking. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 46 (No. 6, Serial No. 193). [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodenough, E. W. (1957) Interest in persons as an aspect of sex differences in the early years. Cenetic Psychobgy Monographs 55:287–323. [aDCG, NN]Google ScholarPubMed
Gouchie, C. & Kimura, D. (1990) The relation between testosterone levels and cognitive ability patterns. Psychoneuroendocrinology 16:1–30. [ÜT]Google Scholar
Gould, J. L. (1986) The locale map of honey bees: Do insects have cognitive maps? Science 232:861–63. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gould, S. J. (1981) The mismeasure of man. Norton. [CH]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1982) The panda's thumb: More reflections on natural history. Grosset. [ASL]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Vrba, E. S. (1982) Exaptation–a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4–15. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grayson, D. & Martin, M. (1988) Gender expectations and student achievement: Teacher handbook. Earlham, Iowa: GrayMill Foundation. [CH]Google Scholar
Gualtieri, T. & Hicks, R. E. (1985) An immunoreactive theory of selective male affliction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:427–41. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gustafsson, J. E. (1984) A unifying model for the structure of intellectual abilities. Intelligence 8:179–203. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guthrie, G. M. (1963) Structure of abilities in a non-Western culture. Journal of Educational Psychology 54:94–103. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, B. K. (1992) Evolutionary developmental biology. Chapman & Hall. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halpern, D. F. (1992) Sex differences in cognitive abilities, 2d ed.Erlbaum. [aDCG, DFH]Google Scholar
Halpern, D. F. (1996) Changing data, changing minds: What the data on cognitive sex differences tell us and what we hear. In: Psychological and psychobiological perspectives on sex differences in cognition [special double issue], ed. Halpern, D. F.. Learning and Individual Differences 8:73–82. [DFH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halpern, D. F. & Wright, T. (1996) A process-oriented model of cognitive sex differences. In: Psychological and psychobiological perspectives on sex differences in cognition [special double issue], ed. Halpern, D. F.. Learning and Individual Differences 8:3–24. [DFH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hampson, E. & Kimura, D. (1988) Reciprocal effects of hormonal fluctuations on human motor and perceptual-spatial skills. Behavioral Neuroscience 102:456–59. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanna, G. (1989) Mathematics achievement of girls and boys in grade eight: Results from twenty countries. Educational Studies in Mathematics 20:225–32. [SFC, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Happé, F. G. E. (1995) The role of age and verbal ability in the theory of mind task performance of subjects with autism. Child Development 66:843–55. [UF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harnisch, D. L., Steinkamp, M. W., Tsai, S.-L. & Walberg, H. J. (1986) Crossnational differences in mathematics attitude and achievement among seventeen-year-olds. International Journal of Educational Development 6:233–44. [arDCG, AF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harshman, R. A. & Hampson, E. (1987) Normal variation in human brain organization: Relation to handedness, sex, and cognitive abilities. In: Werner-Gren Center International Symposium Series: vol. 47. Duality and unity of the brain, ed. Ottoson, D.. Macmillan. [SB]Google Scholar
Hartje, W. (1987) The effect of spatial disorders on arithmetical skills. In: Mathematical disabilities: A cognitive neuropsychological perspective, ed. Deloche, G. & Seron, X.. Erlbaum. [AD]Google Scholar
Haste, H. (1993) The sexual metaphor. Harvard University Press. [MMK]Google Scholar
Hayes, J. R. (1985) Three problems in teaching general skills. In: Thinking and learning skills, ed. Chipman, S., Segal, J. W. & Glaser, R.. Erlbaum. [DEK]Google Scholar
Heckhausen, J. & Schulz, R. (1995) A life-span theory of control. Psycliological Review 102:284–304. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedges, L. V. & Nowell, A. (1995) Sex differences in mental scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals. Science 269:41–45. [MBC, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hier, D. B. & Crowley, W. F. (1982) Spatial ability in androgen-deficient men. New England Journal of Medicine 306:1202–5. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, K. (1982) Hunting and human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 11:521–44. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hines, M. (1990) Gonadal hormones and human cognitive develop. Comparative Physiology 51–63. [DFH]Google Scholar
Ho, H.-Z., Gilger, J. W. & Brink, T. M. (1986) Effects of menstrual cycle on spatial information processes. Perceptual and Motor Skills 63:743–51. [JWG, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, M. (1991) Unraveling the genetics of fragile X syndrome. Science 252:1070. [AHZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, J. L. & Cattell, R. B. (1966) Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized general intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology 57:253–70. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hough, M. S. (1990) Narrative comprehension in adults with right and left hemisphere damage. Brain and Language 38:253–75. [AD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, L. G. (1988) Sex differences in variability may be more important than sex differences in means. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:195–96. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, L. G., Lubinski, D. & Yao, G. (1993) Utility of predicting group membership and the role of spatial visualization in becoming an engineer, physical scientist, or artist. Journal of Applied Psychology 78:250–61. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Husén, T. (1967) International study of achievement in mathematics: A comparison of twelve countries, vol. 2. Wiley. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (1984) How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology 20:722–36. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E. & Lamon, S. J. (1990) Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 107:139–55. [aDCG, AF, DFH, AHZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958) The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. Routledge & Kegan Paul. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jager, R. (1990) Nature unforced. Natural History 04:23–25. [NN]Google Scholar
Johnson, E. S. (1984) Sex differences in problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology 76:1359–71. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, E. S. & Meade, A. C. (1987) Developmental patterns of spatial ability: An early sex difference. Child Development 58:725–40. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, P. E. (1991) Darwin on trial. Regency Gateway. [ASL]Google Scholar
Juraska, J. M. (1986) Sex differences in developmental plasticity of behavior and the brain. In: Developmental Neuropsychobiology, ed. Greenough, W. T. & Juraska, J. M.. Academic Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Jussim, L. J. & Eccles, J. (1995) Are teacher expectations biased by students' gender, social class or ethnicity? In: Stereotype accuracy: Toward appreciating group differences, ed. Lee, Y.-T., Jussim, L. J. & McCauley, C. R.. American Psychological Association. [rDCG]Google Scholar
Jussim, L. J., McCauley, C. R. & Lee, T.-T. (1995) Why study stereotype accuracy and inaccuracy? In: Stereotype accuracy: Toward appreciating group differences, ed. Lee, Y.-T., Jussim, L. J. & McCauley, C. R.. American Psychological Association. [rDCG]Google Scholar
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1985) Cognitive coordinate systems: Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability. Psychological Review 92:137–72. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karmiloff-Smith, A., Klima, E., Bellugi, U., Grant, J. & Baron-Cohen, S. (1995) Is there a social module? Language, face processing, and theory of mind in individuals with Williams syndrome. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 7:196–208. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufmann, A. S. (1994) Intelligent testing with the WISC. Wiley. [AD]Google Scholar
Kimball, M. M. (1989) A new perspective on women's math achievement. Psychological Bulletin 105:198–214. [aDCG, SFC, MMK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimura, D. & Hampson, E. (1994) Cognitive pattern in men and women is influenced by fluctuations in sex hormones. Current Directions in Psychological Science 3:57–61. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, C. A. (1989) About girls and science. Science and Children 27:28–31. [CH]Google Scholar
Kloosterman, P. (1990) Attributions, performance following failure, and motivation in mathematics. In: Mathematics and gender, ed. Fennema, E. & Leder, G. C.. Teachers College Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Kolakowski, D. & Malina, R. M. (1974) Spatial ability, throwing accuracy and man's hunting heritage. Nature 251:410–12. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kornbrot, D. E. (1987) Degree performance as a function of discipline studied, parental occupation and gender. Higher Education 16:513–34. [DEK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kornbrot, D. E. (1988) Creative mathematics: Do SAT-M sex effects matter? Peer commentary on C. P. Benbow, Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:200–1. [DEK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyllonen, P. C. & Christal, R. E. (1990) Reasoning ability is (little more than) working-memory capacity?! Intelligence 14:389–433. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambson, B., Affara, N. A., Mitchell, M. & Ferguson-Smith, M. A. (1992) Evolution of DNA sequence homologies between the sex chromosomes in primate species. Genomics 14:1032–40. [TJC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landau, B., Gleitman, H. & Spelke, E. (1981) Spatial knowledge and geometric representation in a child blind from birth. Science 213:1275–78. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Law, D. J., Pellegrino, J. W. & Hunt, E. B. (1993) Comparing the tortoise and the hare: Gender differences and experience in dynamic spatial reasoning tasks. Psychological Science 4:35–40. [aDCG, DFH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Boeuf, B. J. (1974) Male-male competition and reproductive success in elephant seals. American Zoologist 14:163–76. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Boeuf, B. J. & Peterson, R. S. (1969) Social status and mating activity in elephant seals. Science 163:91–93. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeMay, M. (1977) Asymmetries of the skull and handedness. Journal of Neurological Science 32:243–53. [HTE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, A. B. (1989) Training students to represent arithmetic word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology 81:521–31. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, A. B. & Mayer, R. E. (1987) Students' misconceptions of relational statements in arithmetic word problems. Journal of Educational Psycliology 79:363–71. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, T. T., (1994) Gender-related differences in intelligence: Application of confirmatory factor analysis. Intelligence 19:179–92. [DFH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linn, M. C. & Hyde, J. S. (1989) Gender, mathematics, and science. Educational Researcher 18:17–19, 22–27. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linn, M. C. & Petersen, A. C. (1985) Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development 56:1479–98. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ljung, B. D. (1965) The adolescent spurt in mental growth. Uppsala, Sweden: Almquist. [HTE]Google Scholar
Lovejoy, O. C. (1981a) The origin of man. Science 211:341–50. [aDCG, CH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovejoy, O. C. (1981b) in anon, News, Science 81:12. [CH]Google Scholar
Lubinski, D. & Benbow, C. P. (1992) Gender differences in abilities and preferences among the gifted: Implications for the math-science pipeline. Current Directions in Psychological Science 1:61–66. [aDCG, SB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lubinski, D., Benbow, C. P. & Sanders, C. (1993) Reconceptualizing gender differences in achievement among the gifted. In: International handbook of research and development of giftedness and talent, ed. Heller, K. A., Monks, F. J. & Passow, A. H.. Pergamon Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Lubinski, D. & Dawis, R. V. (1992) Aptitudes, skills, and proficiencies. In: The handbook of industrial/organizational psychology, 2d ed., ed. Dunnette, M. D. & Hough, L. M.. Consulting Psychologists Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Lubinski, D. & Humphreys, L. G. (1990a) Assessing spurious “moderator effects”: Illustrated substantively with the hypothesized (“synergistic”) relation between spatial and mathematical ability. Psychological Bulletin 107:385–93. [arDCG, LGH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lubinski, D. & Humphreys, L. G. (1990b) A broadly based analysis of mathematical giftedness. Intelligence 14:327–55. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luchins, E. (1979) Sex differences in mathematics: How not to deal with them. The American Mathematical Monthly 86:161–68. [ASL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luchins, E. (1981) Women and mathematics: Fact and fiction. The America Mathematical Monthly 88:413–19. [ASL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1980) Female mathematicians: A contemporary appraisal. In: Women and the mathematical mystique, ed. Fox, L.. The Johns Hopkins University Press. [ASL]Google Scholar
Lummis, M. & Stevenson, H. W. (1990) Gender differences in beliefs and achievement: A cross-cultural study. Developmental Psychology 26:254–63. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luneberg, R. K. (1947). Mathematical analysis of bionocular vision. Princeton University Press. (Published by the Dartmouth Eye Institute.) [ASL]Google Scholar
Lupkowski, A. E. (1992) Gender differences on the Differential Aptitude Tests. In: Talent development: vol. 1. Proceedings from the 1991 Harry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development, ed. Colangelo, N., Assouline, S. G. & Ambroson, D. L.. Unionville, NY: Trillium Press. [JCS]Google Scholar
Lytton, H. & Romney, D. M. (1991) Parents' differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 109: 267–96. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1988) Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology 24:755–65. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1990) Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist 45:513–20. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maccoby, E. E. & Jacklin, C. N. (1974) The psychology of sex differences. Stanford University Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
MacDonald, K. B. (1988) Social and personality development: An evolutionary synthesis. Plenum Press. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandler, G. & Shebo, B. J. (1981) Subitizing: An analysis of its component processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 111:1–22. [HD]Google Scholar
Manson, J. H. & Wrangham, R. W. (1991) Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and humans. Current Anthropology 32:369–90. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, H. W, Smith, I. D. & Barnes, J. (1985) Multidimensional self-concepts: Relations with sex and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 77:581–96. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, S. P. & Smith, J. D. (1987) Sex differences in learning mathematics: A longitudinal study with item and error analyses. Journal of Educational Psychology 79:372–83. [arDCG, SFC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masters, M. S. & Sanders, B. (1993) Is the gender difference in mental rotation disappearing? Behavior Genetics 23:337–41. [aDCG, SB, DFH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayer, R. E. (1985) Mathematical ability. In: Human abilities: An information processing approach, ed. Sternberg, R. J.. Freeman. [aDCG]Google Scholar
McCall, R. B. & Kagan, J. (1970) Individual differences in the infant's distribution of attention to stimulus discrepancy. Developmental Psychology 2:90–98. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGee, M. G. (1979) Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin 86:889–918. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGraw, K. O. & Wong, S. P. (1992) A common language effect size statistic. Psychological Bulletin 111:361–65. [MMK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGue, M., Bouchard, T. J. Jr, Iacono, W. G. & Lykken, D. T. (1993) Behavior genetics of cognitive ability: A life span perspective. In: Nature, nurture, and psychology, ed. Plomin, R. & McClearn, G.. American Psychological Association. [DCR]Google Scholar
McGuinness, D. (1985) When children don't team. Basic Books. [aDCG, NN]Google Scholar
McGuinness, D. (1993) Gender differences in cognitive style: Implications for mathematics performance and achievement. In: The challenge of mathematics and science education: Psychology's response, ed. Penner, L. A., Batsche, G. M., Knoff, H. M., & Nelson, D. L.. American Psychological Association. [aDCG, NN]Google Scholar
McGuinness, D. & Pribram, K. H. (1979) The origins of sensory bias in the development of gender differences in perception and cognition. In: Cognitive growth and development: Essays in memory of Herbert G. Birch, ed. Bortner, M.. Brunner/Mazel. [arDCG, NN]Google Scholar
McManus, I. C. & Bryden, M. P. (1991) Geschwind's theory of cerebral lateralization: Developing a formal, causal model. Psychological Bulletin 110:237–53. [NN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meece, J. L., Parsons, J. E., Kaczala, C. M., Goff, S. B. & Futterman, R. (1982) Sex differences in math achievement: Toward a model of academic choice. Psychological Bulletin 91:324–48. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meece, J. L., Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. S. (1990) Predictors of math anxiety and its influence on young adolescents' course enrollment intentions and performance in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology 82:60–70. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, C. J., Ablard, K. E. & Stumpf, H. (1993) Gender differences in academically talented young students' mathematical-reasoning: Patterns across age and subskills. Journal of Educational Psychology 85:340–46. [aDCG, JCS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milne Edwards, H. (1851) Introduction a la Zoologie Generate ou Considerations sur les Tendances de la Nature. Paris: Victor Masson. [MTG]Google Scholar
Mitchell, G. (1981) Human sex differences: A primatologist's perspective. Van Nostrand Reinhold. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Moore, E. G. & Smith, A. W. (1987) Sex and ethnic group differences in mathematics achievement: Results from the national longitudinal study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 18:25–36. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullis, I. V. S. et al. (1993) NAEP 1992–Reading report card for the nation and the states: Data from the national and trial state assessments. Princeton, NJ: National Assessment of Educational Progress. [DFH]Google Scholar
Nevin, M. (1973) Sex differences in participation rates in mathematics and science at Irish schools and universities. International Review of Education 19:88–91. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A. (1987) Cognitive engineering–cognitive science. In: Interfacing thought, ed. Carroll, J. M.. MIT Press. [DEK]Google Scholar
Nottebohm, F. (1970) Ontogeny of bird song. Science 167:950–56. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nottebohm, F. (1971) Neural lateralization of vocal control in a Passerine bird: 1. Song. Journal of Experimental Zoology 177:229–62. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyborg, H. (1994) The neuropsychology of sex-related differences in brain and specific abilities: Hormones, developmental dynamics, and new pardigm. In: The neuropsychology of individual differences, ed. Vernon, P. A.. Academic Press. [ÜT]Google Scholar
O'Boyle, M. M. & Gill, H. S. (1994, 11) An EEG investigation of component processes in mental rotation. Paper presented to the Psychonomics Society, St. Louis, MO. [NN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oliver, M. B. & Hyde, J. S. (1993) Gender differences in sexuality: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 114:29–51. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, R., Wise, B., Conners, F., Rack, J. & Fulker, D. (1989) Specific deficits in component reading and language skills: Genetic and environmental influences. Journal of Learning Disabilities 22:339–48. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osborne, R. T. & Lindsey, J. M. (1967) A longitudinal investigation of change in the factorial composition of intelligence with age in young school children. Journal of Genetic Psychology 110:49–58. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ounsted, C. & Taylor, D. C., Eds. (1972) Gender differences: Their ontogeny and significance. Churchill Livingstone. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Paglin, M. & Rufolo, A. M. (1990) Heterogeneous human captial, occupational choice, and male-female earnings differences. Journal of Labor Economics 8:123–44. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pattison, P. & Grieve, N. (1984) Do spatial skills contribute to sex differences in different types of mathematical problems? Journal of Educational Psychology 76:678–89. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennington, B. F., Gilger, J. W., Pauls, D., Smith, S. A., Smith, S. D. & DeFries, J. C. (1991) Evidence for major gene transmission of developmental dyslexia. Journal of the American Medical Association 266:1527–34. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pepperberg, I. M. (1987) Evidence for conceptual quantitative abilities in the African grey parrot: Labeling of cardinal sets. Ethology 75:37–61. [aDCG, HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, P. L. & Fennema, E. (1985) Effective teaching, student engagement in classroom activities, and sex-related differences in learning mathematics. American Educational Research Journal 22:309–35. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinker, S. (1994) The language instinct: How the mind creates language. Morrow. [JWG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinker, S. (1995) The language instinct: How the mind creates language. Harper Perennial. [ASL]Google Scholar
Pinker, S. & Bloom, P. (1990) Natural language and natural selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:707–84. [aDCG, JWG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pipher, M. (1994) Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. Putnam. [CH]Google Scholar
Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C. & McClearn, G. E. (1990) Behavior genetics: A primer, 2d ed.W. H. Freeman. [DCR]Google Scholar
Plomin, R. & McClearn, G. (1993) Nature, nurture, and psychology. American Psychological Association. [JWG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R. & Petrill, S. A. (1995) Genetics and intelligence: What's new? Intelligence. [DCR]Google Scholar
Pontius, A. A. (1989) Color and spatial error in block design in stone-age Auca Indians: Ecological underuse of occipital-parietal system in men and of frontal lobes in women. Brain and Cognition 10:54–75. [DFH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J. & Stallworth, L. M. (1993) Sexual selection and the sexual and ethnic basis of social hierarchy. In: Social stratification and socioeconomic inequality: vol. 1. A comparative biosocial analysis, ed. Ellis, L.. Praeger. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Premack, D. & Woodruff, G. (1978) Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:515–26. [UF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raven, J. C., Court, J. H. & Raven, J. (1993) Manual for Raven's progressive matrices and vocabulary scores. H. K. Lewis. [rDCG]Google Scholar
Raymond, C. L. & Benbow, C. P. (1986) Gender differences in mathematics: A function of parental support and student sex typing? Developmental Psychology 22:808–19. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Resnick, S. M., Berenbaum, S. A., Cottesman, I. I. & Bouchard, T. J. Jr, (1986) Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology 22:191–98. [aDCG, NN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivera-Batiz, F. L. (1992) Quantitative literacy and the likelihood of employment among young adults in the United States. Journal of Human Resources 27:313–28. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, N. M., Abbott, R. D., Berninger, V. W. & Busse, J. (in press) The structure of abilities in math-precocious young children: Gender similarities and differences. Journal of Educational Psychology. [JCS]Google Scholar
Roe, A. (1953) A psychological study of eminent psychologists and anthropologists, and a comparison with biological and physical scientists. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 67(352). [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohner, R. P. (1976) Sex differences in aggression: Phylogenetic and enculturation perspectives. Ethos 4:57–72. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R. (1988) Evaluating explanations of sex differences in mathematical reasoning scores. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:207–8. [MBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R., Hall, J. A., DiMatteo, M. R., Rogers, P. L. & Archer, D. (1979) Sensitivity to non-verbal communication: The PONS test. Johns Hopkins University Press. [HTE]Google Scholar
Rowe, D. C. (1994) The limits of family influence: Genes, experience, and behavior. Guilford. [DCR, rDCG]Google Scholar
Rowe, D. C. & Masters, M. (1995) Within-sex variation and sex differences: Are the origins the same? Submitted. [DCR]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. (1976) The evolution of intelligence and access to the cognitive unconscious. In: Progress in psychobiology and physiological psychology, ed. Sprague, J. M. & Epstein, A. N.. Academic Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Ruff, C. (1987) Sexual dimorphism in human lower limb bone structure: Relationship to subsistence strategy and sexual division of labor. Journal of Human Evolution 16:391–416. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumbaugh, D. M. & Washburn, D. A. (1993) Counting by chimpanzees and ordinality judgments by macaques in video-formatted tasks. In: The development of numerical competence: Animal and human models, ed. Boysen, S. T. & Capaldi, E. J.. Erlbaum. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Sadker, D. & Sadker, M. (1994) Failing at fairness: How America's schools cheat girls. Scribner. [CH]Google Scholar
Sanders, B. & Soares, M. P. (1986) Sexual maturation and spatial ability in college students. Developmental Psychology 22:199–203. [SB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, B., Soares, M. P. & D'Aquila, J. M. (1982) The sex difference on one test of spatial visualization: A nontrivial difference. Child Development 53:1106–10. [SB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, B., Wilson, J. R. & Vandenberg, S. (1982) Handedness and spatial ability. Cortex 18:79–90. [SB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saxe, G. B. (1982) Culture and the development of numerical cognition: Studies among the Oksapmin of Papua New Guinea. In: Children's logical and mathematical cognition: Progress in cognitive development research, ed. Brainerd, C. J.. Springer-Verlag. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Scarr, S. & McCarthy, K. (1983) How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype–environment effects. Child Development 54:424–35. [aDCG, AHZ]Google Scholar
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985) Mathematical problem solving. Academic Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Sells, L. W. (1980) The mathematics filter and the education of women and minorities. In: Women and the mathematical mystique, ed Fox, L. H., Brody, L. & Tobin, D.. The Johns Hopkins University Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Senk, S. & Usiskin, Z. (1983) Geometry proof writing: A new view of sex differences in mathematics ability. American Journal of Education 91:187–201. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serbin, L. A. & Connor, J. M. (1979) Sex typing of children's play preferences and patterns of cognitive performance. Journal of Genetic Psychology 134:315–16. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, A. & Frith, U. (1993) Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the block design task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 34:1351–64. [UF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shankweiler, D., Crain, S., Katz, L., Fowler, A. E., Liberman, A. M., Brady, S. A., Thornton, R., Lundquist, E., Dreyer, L., Fletcher, J. M., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, S. E. & Shaywitz, B. A. (1995) Cognitive profiles of reading-disabled children: Comparison of language skills in phonology, morphology, and syntax. Psychological Science 6:149–56. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, R. (1986) A skeptic's guide to the creation of life on earth. Heinemann. [ASL]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (1994) Perceptual-cognitive universals as reflections of the world. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 1:2–28. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, J. A. (1967) The problem of sex differences in space perception and aspects of intellectual functioning. Psychological Review 74:290–99. [aDCG, JAS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, J. A. (1978) Sex-related cognitive differences: An essay on theory and evidence. Thomas. [JAS, rDCG]Google Scholar
Sherman, J. A. (1980) Mathematics, spatial visualization, and related factors: Changes in girls and boys, grades 8–11. Journal of Educational Psychology 72:476–82. [arDCG, JAS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, J. A. (1981) Girls' and boys' enrollments in theoretical math courses: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Women Quarterly 5:681–89. [arDCG, JAS]Google Scholar
Sherman, J. A. (1982) Mathematics the critical filter: A look at some residues. Psychology of Women Quarterly 6:428–44. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shute, V., Pellegrino, J., Hubert, L. & Reynolds, R. (1983) The relationship between androgen levels and human spatial abilities. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 21:456–68. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegler, R. S. (1986) Unities across domains in children's strategy choices. In Perspectives for intellectual development: Minnesota symposia on child psychology, ed. Perlmutter, M.. Erlbaum. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Siegler, R. S. (1987) The perils of averaging data over strategies: An example from children's addition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 116:250–64. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegler, R. S. & Crowley, K. (1994) Constraints on learning in nonprivileged domains. Cognitive Psychology 27:194–226. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverman, I. &Eals, M. (1992) Sex differences in spatial abilities: Evolutionary theory and data. In: The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, ed. Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J.. Oxford University Press. [rDCG]Google Scholar
Silverman, I. & Phillips, K. (1993) Effects of estrogen changes during the menstrual cycle on spatial performance. Ethology and Sociobiology 14:257–70. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, T. J., Hespos, S. J. & Rochat, P. (1995) Do infants understand simple arithmetic? (A replication of Wynn 1992.) Cognitive Development 10:253–69. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, D. & Luis, S. (1995) Ethnic and gender consensus for the effect of waistto-hip ratio on judgment of women's attractiveness. Human Nature 6:51–65. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, A. (1776) An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (2 vols.). W. Strahan and T. Cadell. [MTG]Google Scholar
Smuts, B. B. & Gubernick, D. J. (1992) Male-infant relationships in nonhuman primates: Paternal investment or mating effort? In: Father-child relations: Cultural and biosodal contexts, ed. Hewlett, B. S.. Aldine de Gruyter. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Song, M. J. & Ginsburg, H. P. (1987) The development of informal and formal mathematical thinking in Korean and U.S. children. Child Development 58:1286–96. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Spearman, C. (1927) The abilities of man. Macmillan. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1986) Relevance. Blackwell. [UF]Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C. (1992) Differences on the College Board Achievement Tests and the Advanced Placement Examinations: Effect sizes versus some upper-tail ratios. In: Talent development: vol. 1. Proceedings from the 1991 Harry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development, ed. Colangelo, N., Assouline, S. G. & Ambroson, D. L.. Unionville, NY: Trillium Press. [JCS]Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C., Benbow, C. P., Brody, L. E., Dauber, S. & Lupkowski, A. (1992) Gender differences on eighty-six nationally standardized aptitude and achievement tests. In: Talent development: vol. 1. Proceedings from the 1991 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development. Unionville, NY: Trillium Press. [DFH]Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C., Huang, J. & Zu, X. (1986) SAT-M scores of highly selected students in Shanghai tested when less than 13 years old. College Board Review 140:10–13, 28–29. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C., Stumpf, H. & Cohn, S. J. (in press) Ipsative evaluative attitudes versus vocational interests and cognitive abilities of bright male versus female seventh-graders. In: Talent development: vol. 3. Proceedings from the 1995 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development. Dayton, OH: Ohio Psychology Press. [JCS]Google Scholar
Starkey, P. (1992) The early development of numerical reasoning. Cognition 43:93–126. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starkey, P. & Cooper, R. G. Jr, (1980) Perception of numbers by human infants. Science 210:1033–35. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starkey, P., Spelke, E. S. & Gelman, R. (1983) Detection of intermodal numerical correspondences by human infants. Science 222:179–81. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starkey, P., Spelke, E. S. & Gelman, R. (1990) Numerical abstraction by human infants. Cognition 36:97–127. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinkamp, M. W., Harnisch, D. L., Walberg, H. J. & Tsai, S. L. (1985) Cross-national gender differences in mathematics attitude and achievement among 13-year-olds. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior 4:259–77. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S. Y., Chen, C., Lummis, M., Stigler, J., Fan, L. & Ge, F. (1990). Mathematics achievement of children in China and the United States. Child Development 61:1053–66. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevenson, H. W., Parker, T., Wilkinson, A., Hegion, A. & Fish, E. (1976) Longitudinal study of individual differences in cognitive development and scholastic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 68:377–400. [rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevenson, H. W. & Stigler, J. W. (1992) The learning gap: Why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education. Summit Books. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Stevenson, H. W., Stigler, J. W., Lee, S. Y., Lucker, G. W., Kitamura, S. & Hsu, C. C. (1985) Cognitive performance and academic achievement of Japanese, Chinese, and American children. Child Development 56:718–34. [aDCG, AHZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stillion, J. M. (1985) Death and the sexes: An examination of differential longevity, attitudes, behaviors, and coping skills. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Strauss, M. S. & Curtis, L. E. (1981) Infant perception of numerosity. Child Development 52:1146–52. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, M. S. & Curtis, L. E. (1984) Development of numerical concepts in infancy. In: Origins of cognitive skills: The eighteenth Carnegie symposium on cognition, ed. Sophian, C.. Erlbaum. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Stumpf, H. & Stanley, J. C. (in press) Gender-related differences on The College Board's Advanced Placement and Achievement Tests, 1982–1992. Journal of Educational Psychology.[JCS]Google Scholar
Susman, E. J., Inoff-Germain, G., Nottelmann, E. D., Loriaux, D. L., Cutler, G. B. Jr & Chrousos, G. P. (1987) Hormones, emotional dispositions, and aggressive attributes in young adolescents. Child Developtnent 58:114–34. [aDCG]Google ScholarPubMed
Sylwester, R. P. (1995) A celebration of neurons: An educator's guide to the human brain. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. [CH]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1979) The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford University Press. [arDCG, CH]Google Scholar
Tan, Ü. (1989a) Manual proficiency in Cattell's intelligence test in left-handed male and female subjects. International Journal of Neuroscience 44:17–26. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, Ü. (1989b) Right and left hand skill in left-handers: Distribution, learning, and relation to nonverbal intelligence. International Journal of Neurosdence 44:235–49. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. (1990a) Relation of hand skill to spatial reasoning in male and female left-handers with left- and right-hand writing. International Journal of Neuroscience 53:121–33. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. (1990b) Relation of spatial reasoning ability to hand performance in male and female left-handers to familial sinistrality and writing hand. International Journal of Neuroscience 53:143–55. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. (1990c) Testosterone and hand performance in right-handed young adults. International Journal of Neuroscience 54:267–76. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. (1990d) Testosterone and nonverbal intelligence in right-handed men and women. International Journal of Neuroscience 54:277–82. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. (1990e) Relationship of testosterone and nonverbal intelligence to hand preference and hand skill in right-handed young adults. International Journal of Neuroscience 54:283–90. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. (1992) Testosterone and estradiol in right-handed men but only estradiol in right-handed women is inversely correlated with the degree of right-hand preference. International Journal of Neuroscience 66:25–34. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. (1994) The grasp reflex from the right and left hand in human neonates indicates that the development of both cerebral hemispheres in males, but only the right hemisphere in females, is favored by testosterone. International Journal of Psychophysiology 16:39–47. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü. & Akgün, A. (1992) There is a direct relationship between nonverbal intelligence and serum testosterone level in young men. International Journal of Neuroscience 64:213–16. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, Ü., Akgün, A. & Telatar, M. (1993) Relationships among nonverbal intelligence, hand speed and serum testosterone level in left-handed male subjects. International Journal of Neuroscience 71:21–28. [ÜT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thatcher, R. W., Walker, R. A. & Guidice, S. (1986) Human cerebral hemispheres develop at different rates and ages. Science 236:1110–13. [HTE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, H. (1983) Familial correlational analyses, sex differences, and the X-linked gene hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin 93:427–40. [HT, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, H. (1985) A theory of high mathematical aptitude. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 29:231–42. [HT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, H. (1993) A theory explaining sex differences in high mathematical ability has been around for some time (commentary). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:187–90. [HT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, H. (1995) Longitudinal RFT performance is a discrete stage affair. Society for Research in Child Development presentation. [HT]Google Scholar
Thomas, H. & Kail, R. (1991) Sex differences in speed of mental rotation and the X-linked genetic hypothesis. Intelligence 115:17–32. [HT, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, H. & Lohaus, A. (1993) Modeling growth and individual differences in spatial tasks. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 58, No. 9, Serial 237. University of Chicago Press. [HT]Google Scholar
Thomas, J. R. & French, K. E. (1985) Gender differences across age in motor performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 98:260–82. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R. F., Mayers, K. S., Robertson, R. T. & Patterson, C. J. (1970) Number coding in association cortex of the cat. Science 168:271–73. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorndike, E. L. (1911) Individuality. The Riverside Press. [aDCG, NN]Google Scholar
Thurstone, L. L. (1938) Primary mental abilities. Psychotnetric Monographs (No. 1). [aDCG]Google Scholar
Thurstone, L. L. & Thurstone, T. G. (1941) Factorial studies of intelligence. Psychometric Monographs (No. 2). [aDCG]Google Scholar
Travers, K. J. & Westbury, I. (1989) The IEA study of mathematics: 1. Analysis of mathematics curricula. Pergamon Press. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man: 1871–1971, ed. Campbell, B.. Aldine. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Trudeau, R. J. (1987). The non-Euclidean revolution. Birkhäuser. [ASL]Google Scholar
Turner, G. F. W. (1991) Modeling individual differences in spatial task performance with binomial mixtures. Unpublished M.A. thesis, The Pennsylvania State University. [HT]Google Scholar
Tuttle, R. (1981) Paleoanthropology without inhibitions. Science 212(4496):798. [CH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyler, L. E. (1965) The psychology of human differences. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [JAS]Google Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1959) The primary mental abilities of Chinese students: A comparative study of the stability of a factor structure. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 79:257–304. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1962) The hereditary abilities study: Hereditary components in a psychological test battery. American Journal of Human Genetics 14:220–37. [aDCG, LGH]Google Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1966) Contributions of twin research to psychology. Psychological Bulletin 66:327–52. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vandenberg, S. G. (1975) Sources of variance in performance on spatial tests. In: Children's spatial development, ed. Eliot, J. & Salkind, N. J.. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. [SB]Google Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1988) Could these differences be due to genes? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:212–14. [AHZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. & Kuse, A. R. (1978) Mental rotations, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills 47:599–604. [arDCG, JAS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Velmans, M. (1991) Is human information processing conscious? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:651–726. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernon, P. A. (1983) Speed of information processing and general intelligence. Intelligence 7:53–70. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernon, P. E. (1965) Ability factors and environmental influences. American Psychologist 20:723–33. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Very, P. S. (1967) Differential factor structures in mathematical ability. Genetic Psychology Monographs 75:169–207. [aDCG]Google ScholarPubMed
von Glasersfeld, E. (1982) Subitizing: The role of figural patterns in the development of numerical concepts. Archives de Psychologie 50:191–218. [HD]Google Scholar
Voyer, D., Voyer, S. & Bryden, M. P. (1995) Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin 117:250–70. [aDCG, UF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wade, M. J. (1979) Sexual selection and variance in reproductive success. American Naturalist 114:742–47. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wainer, H. & Steinberg, L. s. (1992) Sex differences in performance on the mathematics section of the Scholastic Aptitude Test: A bidirectional validity study. Harvard Educational Review 62:323–36. [SFC, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Washburn, D. A. & Rumbaugh, D. M. (1991) Ordinal judgments of numerical symbols by macaques (Macaca mulatta). Psychological Science 2:190–93. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, N. V. & Kimura, D. (1991) Nontrivial sex differences in throwing and intercepting: Relation to psychometrically-defined spatial functions. Personality and Individual Differences 12:375–85. [NN, rDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werdelin, I. (1961) Geometrical ability and the space factors in boys and girls. University of Lund, Sweden. [JAS]Google Scholar
West, B. H., Griesbach, E. N., Taylor, J. D. & Taylor, L. T. (1982) The Prentice-Hall encyclopedia of mathematics. Prentice-Hall. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Wilcockson, R. W., Crean, C. S. & Day, T. H. (1995) Heritability of a sexually selected character expressed in both sexes. Nature 374:158–59. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, C. L., Barnett, A. M. & Meck, W. H. (1990) Organizational effects of early gonadal secretions on sexual differentiation in spatial memory. Behavioral Neuroscicnce 104:84–97. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton University Press. [TW. rDCG]Google Scholar
Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1985) Competitiveness, risk taking, and violence: The young male syndrome. Ethology and Sociobiology 6:59–73. [arDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wise, L. L. (1985) Project TALENT: Mathematics course participation in the 1960s and its career consequences. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. Erlbaum. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Witelson, S. E. (1987) Neurobiological aspects of language in children. Child Development 58:653–88. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witkin, H. A., Lewis, H. B., Machover, K., Meissner, P. B. & Wapner, S. (1954) Personality through perception. Harper & Row. [HT]Google Scholar
Wood, R. (1976) Sex differences in mathematics attainment at GCE ordinary level. Educational Studies 2:141–60. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wynn, K. (1992) Addition and subtraction by human infants. Nature 358:749–50. [aDCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wynn, T. (1979) The intelligence of later Acheulean hominids. Man 14:371–91. [TW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wynn, T. (1989) The evolution of spatial competence. University of Illinois Press. [TW]Google Scholar
Wynn, T. (1993) Two developments in the mind of early Homo. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 12:299–322. [TW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaslavsky, C. (1973) Africa counts: Number and pattern in African culture Prindle, Weber, & Schmidt. [aDCG]Google Scholar
Zohar, A. H. (1990) Mathematical reasoning ability: Its structure and some aspects of its genetic transmission. Doctoral dissertation, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. [HT, AHZ]Google Scholar
Zohar, A. H. (1995) Developmental patterns of mathematically gifted individuals as viewed through their narratives. The Narrative Study of Lives 3:100–15. [AHZ]Google Scholar
Zohar, A. H. & Guttmann, R. (1988) The forgotten realm of genetic differences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:217. [AHZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar