Hostname: page-component-7b7567c8c-tnzcf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-15T01:42:21.999Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Amnesia and metamemory demonstrate the importance of both metaphors

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Bennett L. Schwartz
Bennett L. Schwartz
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199. schwartb@8ervax.flu.edu
Get accessRights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The correspondence metaphor is useful in developing functional models of memory. However, the storehouse metaphor is still useful in developing structural and process models of memory. Traditional research techniques explore the structure of memory; everyday techniques explore the function of memory. We illustrate this point with two examples: amnesia and metamemory. In each phenomenon, both metaphors are useful.

Information

Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , June 1996, pp. 207
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aanstoos, C. M. (1991) Experimental psychology and the challenge of real life. American Psychologist 46:77–78. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alba, J. W. & Hasher, L. (1983) Is memory schematic? Psychological Bulletin 93:203–31. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Algom, D. (1992) Memory psychophysics: An examination of its perceptual and cognitive prospects. In: Psychophysical approaches to cognition, ed. Algom, D.. Elsevier. [aAK]Google Scholar
Algom, D. & Cain, W. S. (1991) Remembered odors and mental mixtures: Tapping reservoirs of olfactory knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17:1104–19. [aAK]Google ScholarPubMed
Algom, D. & Lubel, S. (1994) Psychophysics in the field: Perception and memory for labor pain. Perception & Psychophysics 55:133–141. [DA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Algom, D., Wolf, Y. & Bergman, B. (1985) Integration of stimulus dimensions in perception and memory: Composition rules and psychophysical relations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114:451–71. [aAK]Google Scholar
Allen, G. L., Siegel, A. W. & Rosinski, R. R. (1978) The role of perceptual context in structuring spatial knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4:617–30. [aAK]Google Scholar
Allport, G. W. (1961) Patterns and growth in personality. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. [aAK]Google Scholar
Alterman, R. (1988) Adaptive planning. Cognitive Science 12:393–421. [RA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alterman, R., Zito-Wolf, R. & Carpenter, T. (1991) Interaction, comprehension, and instruction usage. Journal of the Learning Sciences 1(4). [RA]Google Scholar
Alterman, R. (1995) Pragmatic action [Technical Report CS-95–180]. Brandeis University. [RA]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1983) The architecture of cognition. Harvard University Press. [TPM]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1991) Reflections of the environment in memory. Psychological Science 2:396–408. [UN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, N. H. (1981) Foundations of information integration theory. Academic Press. [NHA]Google Scholar
Anderson, N. H. (1991) Functional memory in person cognition. In: Contributions to information integration theory: vol. 1. Cognition, ed. Anderson, N. H.. Erlbaum. [NHA]Google Scholar
Anderson, N. H. (1992) Integration psychophysics and cognition. In: Psychophysical approaches to cognition, ed. Algom, D.. Elsevier. [NHA]Google Scholar
Anderson, N. H. (in press) A functional theory of cognition. Erlbaum. [NHA]Google Scholar
Arbib, M. A. & Hesse, M. B. (1986) The construction of reality. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, M. B. (1984) Memory and the brain. Erlbaum. [AB-Z]Google Scholar
Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory, vol. 2, ed. Spence, K. W.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bacon, F. T. (1979) Credibility of repeated statements: Memory for trivia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5:241–52. [1MB]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1988) But what the hell is it for? In Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, vol. 1, ed. Gruneberg, M., Morris, P., & Sykes, R.. Wiley. [aAK, EW]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1990) Human memory: Theory and practice. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., Lewis, V. & Ninno-Smith, I. (1978) When did you last…? In: Practical aspects of memory, ed. Gruneberg, M., Morris, P. & Sykes, R.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. (1984a) Associations and organization in cognitive psychology: A reply to Neisser. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 113:36–37. [HPB]Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. (1984b) Memory for people. In: Everyday memory, actions and absentmindedness, ed. Harris, J. E. & Morris, P. E.. Academic Press. [EW]Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. (1987) Functional and cognitive memory theory: An overview of some key issues. In: Memory and learning: The Ebbinghaus centennial conference, ed. Gorfein, D. S. & Hoffman, R. R.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. (1992) Stabilized memory of unrehearsed knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 121:112–13. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. & Bahrick, P. O. (1994) A re-examination of the interrelations among measures of retention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 16:318–24. [LK]Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, P. O. & Wittlinger, R. P. (1975) Fifty years of memories for names and faces: A cross-sectional approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104:54–75. [EW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bahrick, H. P., Hall, L. K. & Berger, S. A. (in press) Accuracy and distortion in memory for high school grades. Psychological Science. [HPB]Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P., Hall, L. K. & Dunlosky, J. (1993) Reconstructive processing of memory content for high versus low test scores and grades. Applied Cognitive Psychology 7:1–10. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker-Ward, L., Ornstein, P. A. & Gordon, B. N. (1993) A tale of two settings: Young children's memory performance in the laboratory and the field. In: Memory in everyday life, ed. Davies, G. M. & Logie, R. H.. Elsevier. [aAK]Google Scholar
Ballard, D. H., Hayhoe, M. M., Li, F. & Whitehead, S. D. (1992) Hand-eye coordination during sequential tasks. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 337:331–39. [KK]Google Scholar
Ballard, D. H., Hayhoe, M. M. & Pelz, J. (1994a) Memory limits in sensory motor tasks. In: Models of information processing in the basal ganglia, ed. Houk, J. C., Davis, J. L. & Beiser, D. G.. MIT Press. [KK]Google Scholar
Ballard, D. H. (1994b) Memory representations in natural tasks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 7(l):66–80. [KK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banaji, M. R. & Crowder, R. (1989) The bankruptcy of everyday memory. American Psychologist 44:1185–93. [aAK, LK, UN, DBW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banks, W. P. (1970) Signal detection theory and human memory. Psychological Bulletin 74:81–99. [aAK]Google Scholar
Barclay, C. R. (1986) Schematization in autobiographical memory. In: Autobiographical memory, ed. Rubin, D. C.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Barclay, C. R. (1988) Truth and accuracy in autobiographical memory. In: Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, vol. 2, ed. Gruneberg, M., Morris, P. & Sykes, R.. Wiley. [aAK, JPS]Google Scholar
Barclay, C. R. (1993) Remembering ourselves. In: Memory in everyday life, ed. Davies, G. M. & Logie, R. H.. Elsevier. [aAK]Google Scholar
Barclay, C. R. & Wellman, H. M. (1986) Accuracies and inaccuracies in autobiographical memories. Journal of Memory and Language 25:93–103. [aAK, JPS]Google Scholar
Barnes, A. E., Nelson, T. O., Dunlosky, J., Mazzoni, G. & Narens, L. (1995). A model of metamemory components involved in retrieval, (submitted). [aAK]Google Scholar
Bartlett, F. C. (1932) Remembering. Cambridge University Press. [aAK, NHA, HPB]Google Scholar
Bechtel, W. (1988). Philosophy of mind: An overview for cognitive science.Google Scholar
Bechtel, W. (1988). Philosophy of mind: An overview for cognitive science. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bechtel, W. & Abrahamsen, (1991) Connectionism and the mind: An introduction to parallel processing in networks. Blackwell. [aAK]Google Scholar
Begg, I. M., Anas, A. & Faranacci, S. (1992) Dissociation of processes in belief: Source recollection, statement familiarity, and the illusion of truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 121:446–58. [1MB]Google Scholar
Begg, I. M. & Armour, V. (1991) Repetition and the ring of truth: Biasing comments. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 22:195–313. [1MB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Begg, I. M., Armour, V. & Kerr, T. (1985) On believing what we remember. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 23:199–214. [1MB]Google Scholar
Begg, I. M., Duft, S., Lalonde, P., Melnick, R. & Sanvito, J. (1989) Memory predictions are based on ease of processing. Journal of Memory and Language 28:610–32. [aAK]Google Scholar
Begg, I. M., Robertson, R. K., Gruppuso, V., Anas, A. & Needham, D. R. (in press) The illusory knowledge effect. Journal of Memory and Language. [1MB]Google Scholar
Bekerian, D. A. & Bowers, J. M. (1983) Eyewitness testimony: Were we misled? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 9:139–45. [aAK]Google Scholar
Ben-Ze'ev, A. (1986) Two approaches to memory. Philosophical Investigations 9:288–301. [AB-Z]Google Scholar
Ben-Ze'ev, A. (1993) The perceptual system: A philosophical and psychological perspective. Lang. [AB-Z]Google Scholar
Bensinger, D. G., Hayhoe, M. & Ballard, D. (1995) Visual memory in a natural task. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science [Suppl.] 36(4):S14. [KK]Google Scholar
Bernbach, H. A. (1967) Decision processes in memory. Psychological Review 74:462–80. [aAK]Google Scholar
Biederman, I. (1987) Recognition by components: A thoery of human image understanding. Psychological Review 94:115–45. [CM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjork, R. A. (1994) Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In: Metacognition: Knowing about knowing, ed. Metcalfe, J. & Shimamura, A. P.. MIT Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Black, M. (1962) Models and metaphors. Cornell University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Boon, J. C. W. & Davies, G. (1988) Attitudinal influences on witness memory: Fact and fiction. In: Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, vol. 1, ed. Gruneberg, M., Morris, P. & Sykes, R.. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bousfield, W. A. (1953) The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology 49:229–40. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bousfield, W. A. & Rosner, S. R. (1970) Free vs. uninhibited recall. Psychonomic Science 20:75–76. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bower, G. H. (1970) Organizational factors in memory. Cognitive Psychology 1:18–46. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bower, G. H., Black, J. & Turner, T. (1979) Scripts in text comprehension and memory. Cognitive Psychology 11:177–220. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bransford, J. D. & Franks, J. J. (1971) The abstraction of linguistic ideas. Cognitive Psychology 2:331–50. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bransford, J. D. & Johnson, M. K. (1972) Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior 11:717–26. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bransford, J. D., McCarrell, N. S., Franks, J. J. & Nitsch, K. E. (1977) Toward unexplaining memory. In Perceiving, acting, and knowing, ed. Shaw, R. & Bransford, J. D.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Breuer, J. & Freud, S. (1895/1955) Studies on hysteria. In: The standard edition of the complete psychology works of Sigmund Freud (2 vols), ed. Strachey, J.. Hogarth Press. [MAC]Google Scholar
Brewer, W. F. (1988) Memory for randomly sampled autobiographical events. In: Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory, ed. Neisser, U. & Winograd, E.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK, EW]Google Scholar
Brewer, W. F. (1992) The theoretical and empiral status of the flashbulb memory hypothesis. In: Affect and accuracy in recall: Studies of “flashbulb memories”, ed. Wingrad, E. & Neisser, U.. Cambridge University Press. [UR]Google Scholar
Brewer, W. F. (in press) What is recollective memory? In: Remembering our past: Studies in autobiographical memory, ed. Rubin, D. C.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Brewer, W. F. & Nakamura, G. U. (1984) The nature and function of schemas. In: Handbook of social cognition, ed. Wyer, R. S. & Srull, T. K.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Brewer, W. F. & Treyens, J. C. (1981) Role of schemata in memory for places. Cognitive Psychology 13:207–30. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1971) Decision and stress. Academic press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Brown, A. L. (1979) Theories of memory and the problem of development: Activity, growth, and knowledge. In: Levels of processing, ed. Crail, F. I. M. & Cermak, L.. Erlbaum. [rAK]Google Scholar
Brown, E. L., Deffenbacher, K. A. & Sturgill, W. (1977) Memory for faces and the circumstances of encounter. Journal of Applied Psychology 62:31118. [aAK]Google Scholar
Brown, J. (Ed.) (1976) Recall and recognition. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
Brown, R. & Kulik, J. (1977) Flashbulb memories. Cognition 5:73–99. [DBW]Google Scholar
Bruce, D. (1985) The how and why of ecological memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114:78–90. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bruce, D. (1989). Functional explanations of memory. In: Everyday cognition in adulthood and late life, ed. Poon, L. W., Rubin, D. C. & Wilson, B. E.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bruce, D. (1991) Mechanistic and functional explanations of memory. American Psychologist 46:46–49. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budescu, D. & Bar-Hillel, M. (1993) To guess or not to guess: A decisiontheoretic view of formula scoring. Journal of Educational Measurement 38:277–291. [aAK]Google Scholar
Bunsey, M. & Eichenbaum, H. (in press a) Selective damage to the hippocampal region blocks long-term retention of a natural and nonspatial stimulusstimulus association. Hippocampus. [HE]Google Scholar
Bunsey, M. & Eichenbaum, H. (in press b) Conservation of hippocampal memory function in rats and humans. Nature. [HE]Google Scholar
Bursen, H. A. (1978) Dismantling the memory machine. Reidel. [AB-Z]Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W. (1979) Memory for urban geography. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 31:147–54. [aAK]Google Scholar
Carruthers, M. (1990) The book of memory: A study of memory in medieval culture. Cambridge University Press. [TON]Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J. & Bronfenbrenner, U. (1985) Don't forget to take the cup cakes out of the oven: Prospective memory, strategic time monitoring, and context. Child Development 56:152–64. [aAK]Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J. & Bronfenbrenner, U. (1991) On the demise of everyday memory: “The rumors of my death are much exaggerated” (Mark Twain). American Psychologist 46:27–32. [aAK]Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J. & Bruck, M. (1993) The suggestibility of the child witness: An historical review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin 113:403–39. [rAK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chambers, D. & Reisberg, D. (1992) What an image depicts depends on what an image means. Cognitive Psychology 24:165–76. [GM]Google Scholar
Christie, D. F. M. & Ellis, H. D. (1980) Photofit constructions versus verbal descriptions of faces. Journal of Applied Psychology 66:358–63. [aAK]Google Scholar
Cohen, G. (1989) Memory in the real world. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Cohen, N. J. & Eichenbaum, H. (1993) Memory, amnesia, and the hippocampal system. MIT Press. [HE]Google Scholar
Cohen, R. L. (1988) Metamemory for words and enacted instructions: Predicting which items will be recalled. Memory & Cognition 16:452–60. [aAK]Google Scholar
Conway, M. A. (1990) Autobiographical memory: An introduction. Buckingham: Open University Press. [MAC]Google Scholar
Conway, M. A. (1991) In defense of everyday memory. American Psychologist 46:19–27. [aAK]Google Scholar
Conway, M. A. (1992) A structural model of autobiographical memory. In: Theoretical perspectives on autobiographical memory, ed. Conway, M. A., Kubin, D. C., Spinnler, H. & Wagenaar, W. A.. Kluwer. [MAC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conway, M. A. (1993) Method and meaning in memory research. In: Memory in everyday life, ed. Davies, G. M. & Logie, R. H.. Elsevier. [aAK, DBW]Google Scholar
Conway, M. A. (1996) Autobiographical knowledge and autobiographical memories. In: Remembering our past: Studies in autobiographical memory, ed. Rubin, D. C.. Cambridge University Press. [MAC]Google Scholar
Conway, M. A., Cohen, G. & Stanhope, N. (1991) On the very long-term retention pf knowledge acquired through formal education: Twelve years of cognitive psychology. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 120:395–409. [EW]Google Scholar
Conway, M. A. & Rubin, D. C. (1993) The structure of autobiographical memory. In: Theories of memory, ed. Collins, A. E., Gathercole, S. E., Conway, M. A. & Morris, P. E. M.. Erlbaum. [MAC]Google Scholar
Coren, S., Ward, L. M. & Enns, J. T. (1994) Sensation and perception. Harcourt Brace. [DA]Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. (1983) On the transfer of information from temporary to permanent memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B302:341–59. [aAK]Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. (1983) On the transfer of information from temporary to permanent memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B302:341–59. [AWK]Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. (1991) Will cognitivism bury experimental psychology? Canadian Psychology 32:440–44. [aAK]Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. & Lockhart, R. S. (1972) Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11:671–84. [aAK,]Google Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. (1955) Processes affecting scores on “understanding of others” and “assumed similarity”. Psychological Bulletin 52:177–93. [aAK]Google Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. (1957) The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist 12:671–84. [TPM, DBW]Google Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. (1984) Essentials of psychological testing. Harper & Row. [aAK]Google Scholar
Crowder, R. G. (1976) Principles of learning and memory. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Crowder, R. G. (1993) Systems and principles in memory theory: Another critique of pure memory. In: Theories of memory, ed. Collins, A. F., Gathercole, S. E., Conway, M. A. & Morris, P. E.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Davies, G. M. & Logie, R. H., Eds. (1993) Memory in everyday life. Elsevier. [aAK, LK]Google Scholar
Dawes, R. M. (1966) Memory and distortion of meaningful written material. British Journal of Psychology 57:77–86. [aAK]Google Scholar
Deffenbacher, K. A. (1988) Eyewitness research: The next ten years. In: Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, vol. 1, ed. Gruneberg, M., Morris, P. & Sykes, R.. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
Deffenbacher, K. A. (1991) A maturing of research on the behavior of eyewitnesses. Applied Cognitive Psychology 5:377–402. [aAK]Google Scholar
Donahoe, J. W. & Palmer, D. C. (1994) Learning and complex behavior. Allyn & Bacon. [DCP]Google Scholar
Dooling, D. J. & Christiaansen, R. E. (1977) Episodic and semantic aspects of memory for prose. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 3:428–36. [aAK, HPB]Google Scholar
Dooling, D. J. & Mullet, R. L. (1973) Locus of thematic effects in retention of prose. Journal of Experimental Psychology 97:404–6. [aAK]Google Scholar
IIIDuggan, L. M., Aubrey, M., Doherty, E., Isquith, P., Levine, M. & Scheiner, J. (1989) The credibility of children as witnesses in a simulated child sexual abuse trial. In: Perspectives on children's testimony, ed. Ceci, S. J., Ross, D. F. & Toglia, M. P.. Springer-Verlag. [rAK]Google Scholar
Ebbinghaus, H. (1895/1964) Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. Dover. [aAK, MAC]Google Scholar
Edwards, D. & Potter, J. (1992) The chancellor's memory: Rhetoric and truth in discursive remembering. Applied Cognitive Psychology 6:187–215. [UN]Google Scholar
Eich, J. E. (1980) The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval. Memory & Cognition 8:157–73. [aAK]Google Scholar
Eichenbaum, H., Otto, T. & Cohen, N. J. (1994) Two functional components of the hippocampal memory system. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:449–518. [HE]Google Scholar
Ellis, H. D., Shepard, J. W. & Davies, G. M. (1975) An investigation of the use of the photofit technique for recalling faces. British Journal of Psychology 66:29–37. [aAK]Google Scholar
Erdelyi, M. H. & Becker, (1974) Hypermnesia for pictures: Incremental memory for pictures but not words in multiple recall trials. Cognitive Psychology 6:159–71. [aAK]Google Scholar
Erdelyi, M. H., Finks, J. & Feigin-Pfau, M. B. (1989) The effect of response bias on recall performance, with some observations on processing bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118:245–54. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fechner, G. T. (1882/1987) Some thoughts on the psychophysical representation of memories (Scheerer, E., Trans.). Psychological Research 49:209–12. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P. & Lichtenstein, S. (1977) Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 3:552–64. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. P. (1981) The interaction between encoding distinctiveness and test conditions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 7:306–10. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. P. (in press) Interviewing victims and witnesses of crime. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. [RPF]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. P. & Craik, F. I. M. (1977) The interaction between encoding and retrieval operations in cued recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 3:701–11. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. P. & Geiselman, R. E. (1992) Memory enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview. Charles Thomas. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. P., Geiselman, R. E. & Amador, M. (1989) Field test of the cognitive interview: Enhancing the recollection of actual victims and witnesses of crime. Journal of Applied Psychology 74:722–27. [aAK, AWK]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. P., Geiselman, R. E. & Raymond, D. S. (1987) Critical analysis of police interview techniques. Journal of Police Science and Administration 15:177–85. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fivush, R. (1988) The functions of event memory: Some comments on Nelson and Barsalou. In: Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory, ed. Neisser, U. & Winograd, E.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fivush, R. (1993) Commentary: Memory and meaning in the laboratory and in the field. In: Memory in everyday life, ed. Davies, G. M. & Logie, R. H.. Elsevier. [aAK]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1975) The language of thought. Harvester Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1898) Zum psychischen mechanismus der vergesslichkeit. Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologic 1:436–43. [HJM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freud, S. (1900/1953) The interpretation of dreams. In: The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (vols. 4 & 5), ed. Strachey, J.. Hogarth Press. [MAC]Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1905/1953) Fragment of an analysis of a case of hysteria. In: The standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 7, ed. Strachey, J.. Hogarth Press. [SFL]Google Scholar
Funder, D. C. (1987) Errors and mistakes: Evaluating the accuracy of social judgment. Psychological Bulletin 101:75–90. [aAK]Google Scholar
Gardiner, J. M. & Java, R. I. (1993) Recognizing and remembering. In: Theories of memory, ed. Collins, A. F., Gathereole, S. E., Conway, M. A., & Morris, P. E.. Erlbaum. [GM]Google Scholar
Garner, W. R. (1972) The acquisition and application of knowledge: A symbiotic relation. American Psychologist 27:941–46. [TPM]Google Scholar
Geiselman, R. E. & Fisher, R. P. (1989) The cognitive interview technique for interviewing victims and witnesses of crime. In: Psychological methods in investigation and evidence, ed. Raskin, D.. Springer. [aAK]Google Scholar
Gentner, D. & Grudin, J. (1985) The evolution of mental metaphors in psychology: A 90-year retrospective. American Psychologist 40:181–92. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gergen, K. J. (1994) Mind, text, and society: Self-memory in social context. In: The remembering self: Construction and accuracy in the self-narrative, ed. Neisser, U. & Fivush, R.. Cambridge University Press. [UN]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin. [aAK, KGW, AB-Z]Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, G., Hoffrage, U. & Kleinbolting, H. (1991) Probabilistic mental models: A Brunswikian theory of confidence. Psychological Review 98:506–28. [aAK]Google Scholar
Gillund, G. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1984) A retrieval model for both recognition and recall. Psychological Review 91:1–67. [TPM]Google Scholar
Goldmeier, E. (1982) The memory trace: Its formation and its fate. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Goldstein, E. B. (1989) Sensation and perception. Wadsworth. [DA]Google Scholar
Gorenstein, G. W. & Ellsworth, P. C. (1980) Effect of choosing an incorrect photograph on a later identification by an eyewitness. Journal of Applied Psychology 65:616–22. [aAK]Google Scholar
Gould, J. L. & Marler, P. (1987) Learning by instinct. Scientific American 256:74–85. [HE]Google Scholar
Green, P. (1993) Pericles put in his place.: The new CAH on the fifth century BC. Times Literary Supplement 4699 (04 23), p. 5. [JPS]Google Scholar
Gregg, V. H. (1986) Introduction to human memory. Routledge & Kegan Paul. [aAK]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1987) Competitive learning: From interactive activation to adaptive resonance. Cognitive Science 11:23–63. [aAK]Google Scholar
Gruneberg, M. M. & Morris, P. E. (1992) Applying memory research. In: Aspects of memory, 2d ed., vol. 1, ed. Gruneberg, M. & Morris, P.. Routledge. [aAK]Google Scholar
Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E. & Sykes, R. N., Eds. (1988) Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E. & Sykes, R. N. (1991) The obituary on everyday memory and its practical applications is premature. American Psychologist 46:74–76. [aAK]Google Scholar
Harnad, S. (1990) The symbol grounding problem. Physica D 42:335–46. [aAK]Google Scholar
Harnad, S. (1992) Connecting object to symbol in modeling cognition. In: Connectionism in context, ed. Clarke, A. & Luce, R.. Springer-Verlag. [aAK]Google Scholar
Harris, J. E. & Morris, P. E., Eds. (1984) Everyday memory, actions, and absentmindedness. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hart, R. A. (1979) Children's experience of place. Irvington. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hart, R. A. (1981) Children's spatial representation of the landscape: Lessons and questions from a field study. In: Spatial representation and behavior across the life span, ed. Liben, L. S., Patterson, A. H., & Newcombe, N.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hastorf, A. H. & Cantril, H. (1954) They saw a game: A case study. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49:129–134. [IRN]Google Scholar
Hayhoe, M. M., Ballard, D. H. & Pelz, J. B. (1994) Visual representations in natural tasks. In: Proceedings of the workshop on visual behaviors. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press. [KK]Google Scholar
Head, H. (1920) Studies in neurology, vol. 2. Hodder & Stoughton and Oxford University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hermann, D. J. & Chaffin, R. (1988) Memory in historical perspective. Springer-Verlag. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hesse, M. B. (1966) Models and analogies in science. University of Notre Dame Press. [aAK, TON]Google Scholar
Hilgard, E. R. & Loftus, E. F. (1979) Effective interrogation of the eyewitness. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 27:342–57. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hinton, G. E. & Anderson, J. A. (1981) Parallel models of associative memory. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1974) Psychology and the cow's belly. The Worm Runner's Digest 16:84–85. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1986) “Schema abstraction” in a multiple-trace memory model. Psychological Review 87:398–410. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1990) Human learning and memory: Connections and dissociations. Annual Review of Psychology, 41:109–39. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hoffman, R. R. (1980) Metaphor in science. In: Cognitive and figurative language, ed. Honeck, R. P. & Hoffman, R. R.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Holland, P. W. (1986) Statistics and causal inference. Journal of the American Statistical Association 81:945–60. [DBW]Google Scholar
Huttenlocher, J., Hedges, L. V. & Bradburn, N. M. (1990) Reports of elapsed time: Bounding and rounding processes in estimation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16:196–213. [aAK]Google Scholar
Huttenlocher, J., Hedges, L. V. & Duncan, S. (1991) Categories and particulars: Prototype effects in estimating spatial location. Psychological Review 98:352–76. [aAK]Google Scholar
Huttenlocher, J., Hedges, L. V. & Prohaska, V. (1988) Hierarchical organization in ordered domains: Estimating the dates of events. Psychological Review 95:471–84. [aAK]Google Scholar
Hyman, I. E. Jr, (1994) Conversational remembering: Story recall with a peer versus for an experimenter. Applied Cognitive Psychology 8:49–66. [UN]Google Scholar
Hyman, I. E. Jr, & Neisser, U. (1992) The role of the self in recollections of a seminar. journal of Narrative and Life History 2:81–103. [UN]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. (1988) Memory observed and memory unobserved. In: Rememljering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory, ed. Neisser, U. & Winograd, E.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L., Kelley, C. M. & Dywan, J. (1989) Memory attributions. In: Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honour of Endel Tulving, ed. Roediger, H. L. & Craik, F. I. M.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L., Lindsay, D. S. & Toth, J. P. (1992) Unconscious influences revealed: Attention, awareness, and control. American Psychologist 47:802–9. [aAK]Google Scholar
Janowsky, J. S., Shimamura, A. P. & Squire, L. R. (1989) Memory and metainemory: Comparisons between frontal lobe lesions and amnesic patients. Psychobiology 17:3–11. [aAK]Google Scholar
Johnson, M. (1987) The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. University of Chicago Press. [UN]Google Scholar
Johnson, M. K., Bransford, J. D. & Solomon, S. K. (1973) Memory for tacit implications of sentences. Journal of Experimental Psychology 98:203–5. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M. K., Hastroudi, S. & Lindsay, D. S. (1993) Source monitoring. Psychological Bulletin 114:3–28. [MAC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983) Mental modek. Harvard University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Jussim, L. (1991) Social perception and social reality: A reflection construction model. Psychological Review 98:54–73. [aAK]Google Scholar
Karn, K.S. (1995) Spatial representations for programming saccadic eye movements. Doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY. [KK]Google Scholar
Kelley, C. M. & Jacoby, L. L. (1990) The construction of subjective experience: Memory attributions. Mind and Language 5:49–68. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, C. M. & Lindsay, D. S. (1993) Remembering mistaken for knowing: Ease of retrieval as a basis for confidence in answers to general knowledge questions. Journal of Memory and Language 32:1–24. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kelly, G. A. (1955) The psychology of personal constructs, vol. 1 & 2. Norton. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kenny, D. A. & Albright, L. (1987) Accuracy in interpersonal perception: A social relations analysis. Psychological Bulletin 102:390–402. [aAK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenny, D. A. (1991) A general model of consensus and accuracy in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review 98:155–63. [aAK, AWK]Google Scholar
Kerst, S. M. & Howard, J. H. (1978) Memory psychophysics for visual area and length. Memory & Cognition 6:327–35. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1994) Memory research: The convergence of theory and practice. Paper presented at the Third Practical Aspects of Memory Conference (August 1994) College Park, MD. [LK]Google Scholar
Kintsch, W. (1967) Memory and decision aspects of recognition learning. Psychological Review 74:496–504. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kintsch, W. & van Dijk, T. A. (1978) Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review 85:363–94. [aAK]Google Scholar
Klatzky, R. L. (1984) Memory and awareness: An information-processing perspective. Freeman. [RPF]Google Scholar
Klatzky, R. L. (1991) Lets be friends. American Psychologist 46:43–46. [aAK]Google Scholar
Klatzky, R. L. & Erdelyi, M. H. (1985) The response criterion problem in tests of hypnosis and memory. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 33:246–57. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1973) Remembering operations. Memory & Cognition 1:347–55. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. & Roediger, H. L. (1984) Procedures of mind. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 23:425–49. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. & Smythe, W. E. (1984) Symbol manipulation: Alternatives to the computational view of mind. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 23:289–314. [aAK]Google Scholar
Koriat, A. (1993) How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review 100:609–39. [aAK]Google Scholar
Koriat, A. (1995) Dissociating knowing and the feeling of knowing: Further evidence for the accessibility model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 124:311–33. [aAK, BLS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koriat, A., Fischhoff, B. & Razel, O. (1976) An inquiry into the process of temporal orientation. Acta Psychologica 40:57–73. [aAK]Google Scholar
Koriat, A. & Goldsmith, M. (1994) Memory in naturalistic and laboratory contexts: Distinguishing the accuracy-oriented and quantity-oriented approaches to memory assessment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 123:297–316. [aAK, RPF, AWK]Google Scholar
Koriat, A. & Goldsmith, M. (1994) (in press a) Memory as something that can be counted versus memory as something that can be counted on. In: Basic and applied memory research: Practical applications, vol. 2, ed. Hermann, D., McEvoy, C., Herzog, C., Johnson, S. M. & Hertel, P.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Koriat, A. & Goldsmith, M. (1994) (in press b) Monitoring and control processes in the strategic regulation of memory accuracy. Psychological Review. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kozminsky, E. (1977) Altering comprehension: The effect of biasing titles on text comprehension. Memory & Cognition 5:482–90. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W. (1989) The psychology of being “right”: The problem of accuracy in social perception and cognition. Psychological Bulletin 106:395–409. [aAK, AWK]Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. S. (1979) Metaphor in science. In: Metaphor and thought. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Kvavilashvili, L. & Ellis, J. A. (1995) Ecological validity and the convergence of traditional and ecological approaches to memory research (submitted). [LK]Google Scholar
Lachman, R. (1960) The model in theory construction. Psychological Review 67:113–29. [TON]Google Scholar
Lachman, R., Lachman, J. & Butterfield, E. C. (1979) Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction. [aAK]Google Scholar
Lakoff, G. (1987) Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. University of Chicago Press. [UR]Google Scholar
Laming, D. (1992) Analysis of short-term retention: Models for Brown-Peterson experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18:1342–1365. [KGW]Google Scholar
Landauer, T. K. (1975) Memory without organization: Properties of a model with random storage and undirected retrieval. Cognitive Psychology 7:495–531. [aAK]Google Scholar
Larsen, S. F. (1987) Remembering and the archaeology metaphor. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 2:187–99. [SFL]Google Scholar
Larsen, S. F. (1988) Remembering reported events: Memory for news in ecological perspective. In: Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, vol. 1, ed. Gruneberg, M., Morris, P., & Sykes, R.. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
Lave, J. (1988) Cognition in practice. Cambridge University Press. [RA]Google Scholar
Leary, D. E., Ed. (1990) Metaphors in the history of psychology. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Lichtenstein, S., Fischhoff, B. & Phillips, L. D. (1982) Calibration of probabilities: The state of the art to 1980. In: Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases, Kahneman, D., Slovic, P. & Tversky, A.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Lindsay, R. C. L. & Wells, G. L. (1985) Improving eyewitness identification from lineups: Simultaneous versus sequential lineup presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology 70:556–64. [aAK]Google Scholar
Linton, M. (1975) Memory for real-world events. In: Explorations in cognition, ed. Norman, D. A. & Rumelhart, D.. Freeman. [aAK]Google Scholar
Lipton, J. P. (1977) On the psychology of eyewitness testimony. Journal of Applied Psychology 62:90–95. [aAK]Google Scholar
Locke, J. (1690/1965) An essay concerning human understanding. Collier Books. [aAK]Google Scholar
Lockhart, R. S. & Craik, F. I. M. (1990) Levels of processing: A retrospective commentary on a framework for memory research. Canadian Journal of Psychology 44:87–112. [aAK]Google Scholar
Lockhart, R. S. & Murdock, B. B. (1970) Memory and the theory of signal detection. Psychological Bulletin 74:100–109. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1977) How to catch a zebra in semantic memory. In: Perceiving, acting and knowing, ed. Shaw, R. & Bransford, J.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1979a) Eyewitness testimony. Harvard University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1979b) The malleability of memory. American Scientist 67:312–70. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1982) Memory and its distortions. In: C. Stanley Hall Lectures, ed. Kraut, A. G.. American Psychological Association. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1991a) Made in memory: Distortions to recollection after misleading information. In: Psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 27, ed. Bower, G.. Academic Press. [CM]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1991b) The glitter of everyday memory…and the gold. American Psychologist 46:16–19. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. & Hoffman, H. G. (1989) Misinformation and memory: The creation of new memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118:100–104. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. & Marburger, W. (1983) Since the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, has anyone beaten you up? Improving the accuracy of retrospective reports with landmark events. Memory & Cognition 11:114–20. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. & Palmer, J. C. (1974) Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 13:585–89. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G. & Burns, H. J. (1978) Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4:19–31. [aAK]Google Scholar
Loftus, G. R. (1985) Evaluating forgetting curves. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11:397–406. [KGW]Google Scholar
Lord, A. B. (1960) The singer of tales. Harvard University Press. [UN]Google Scholar
Malcolm, N. (1977) Memory and mind. Cornell University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Mandler, J. M. (1979) Categorical and schematic organization in memory. In: Memory organization and structure, ed. Puff, C. R.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Mandler, J. M. (1992) How to build a baby: 2. Conceptual primitives. Psychological Review 99:587–604. [UN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandler, J. M. & Johnson, N. S. (1977) Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology 9:111–51. [aAK]Google Scholar
Mandler, J. M. & Mandler, G. (1964) Thinking: From association to gestalt. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
Mantyla, T. (1986) Optimizing cue effectiveness: Recall of 500 and 600 incidentally learned words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12:66–71. [aAK]Google Scholar
Markus, H. (1977) Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35:63–78. [aAK]Google Scholar
Markus, H. (1980) The self in thought and memory. In: The self in social psychology, ed. Wegner, D. M. & Vallacher, R. R.. Oxford University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. Freeman. [GM]Google Scholar
Marshall, J. C. & Fryer, D. M. (1978) Speak, memory! An introduction to some historic studies of remembering and forgetting. In: Aspects of memory, ed. Gruneberg, M. M. & Morris, P.. Methuen. [aAK]Google Scholar
McBurney, D. H. & Collings, V. B. (1977) Introduction to sensation/perception. Prentice-Hall. [DA]Google Scholar
McCauley, R. N. (1988) Walking in our own footsteps: Autobiographical memory and reconstruction. In: Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory, ed. Neisser, U. & Winograd, E.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1985) Distributed memory and the representation of general and specific knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114:159–88. [aAK]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1986) A distributed model of human learning and memory. In: Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition: vol. 2. Psychological and biological models, ed. McClelland, J. L., Rumelhart, D. E. & the PDP Research Group. MIT Press. [aAK,]Google Scholar
McDonald, R. J. & White, N. M. (1995) Hippocampal and nonhippocampal contributions to place learning in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience 109:579–93. [HE]Google Scholar
McNamara, T. P. (1986) Mental representations of spatial relations. Cognitive Psychology 18:87–121. [aAK]Google Scholar
Metcalfe Eich, J. (1985) Levels of processing, encoding specificity, elaboration, and CHARM. Psychological Review 92:1–38. [aAK]Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J. (1990) Composite holographic associative recall model (CHARM) and blended memories in eyewitness testimony. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 119:145–60. [aAK]Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J. (1993) Novelty monitoring, metacognition, and control in a composite holographic associative recall model: Implications for Korsakoff amnesia. Psychological Review 100:3–22. [aAK]Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J., Schwartz, B. L. & Joaquim, S. G. (1993) The cue familiarity heuristic in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 19:851–61. [aAK]Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J. & Shimamura, A. (1994) Metacognition: Knowing about knowing. MIT Press. [aAK, TON]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. (1975) A framework for representing knowledge. In: The psychology of computer vision, ed. Winston, P. H.. McGraw-Hill. [aAK]Google Scholar
Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D. & Franks, J. J. (1977) Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 16:519–33. [aAK, EW]Google Scholar
Morris, C. D., Stein, B. S. & Bransford, J. D. (1979) Prerequisites for the utilization of knowledge in the recall of prose passages. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5:253–61. [aAK]Google Scholar
Morris, P. E., Tweedy, M. & Gruneberg, M. M. (1985) Interest, knowledge and the memory of soccer scores. British Journal of Psychology 76:417–25. [aAK]Google Scholar
Morton, J. (1991) The bankruptcy of everyday thinking. American Psychologist 46:32–34. [aAK]Google Scholar
Moscovitch, M. (1994) Memory and working with memory: Evaluation of a component process model and comparisons with other models. In Memory Systems 1994, ed. Schacter, D. & Tulving, E.. MIT Press. [BLS]Google Scholar
Moscovitch, M. (1994) (in press) Confabulation. In: Memory distortion, ed. Schacter, D. L., Coyle, J. T., Fischbach, G. D., Mesulam, M. M. & Sullivan, L. E.. Harvard University Press. [rAK]Google Scholar
Moston, S. (1987) The suggestibility of children in interview studies. First Language 7:67–78. [rAK]Google Scholar
Moyer, R. S. (1973) Comparing objects in memory: Evidence suggesting an internal psychophysics. Perception & Psychophysics 13:180–84. [aAK]Google Scholar
Moyer, R. S. & Dumais, S. T. (1978) Mental comparison. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Murdock, B. B. (1966) The criterion problem in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology 72:317–24. [aAK]Google Scholar
Murdock, B. B. (1974) Human memory: Theory and data. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Murdock, B. B. (1982) A theory for the storage and retrieval of item and associative information. Psychological Review 89:609–26. [TPM]Google Scholar
Murphy, A. H. (1973) A new vector partition of the probability score. Journal of Applied Meteorology 12:595–600. [aAK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [aAK, SFL, UN]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976) Cognition and reality. Freeman. [UN]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1978) Memory: What are the important questions? In: Practical aspects of memory, ed. Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E. & Sykes, R. N.. Academic Press. [aAK, LK, AWK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1981) John Dean's memory: A case study. Cognition 9:1–22. [aAK, JPS]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1984) Interpreting Harry Bahrick's discovery: What confers immunity against forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 113:32–35. [aAK, HPB]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1986) Nested structure in autobiographical memory. In: Autobiographical memory, ed. Rubin, D. C.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1988a) The ecological approach to perception and memory. New Trends in Experimental and Clinical Psychiatry 4:153–66. [aAK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1988b) Time present and time past. In: Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, vol. 2, ed. Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. & Sykes, R.. Wiley. [aAK, EW]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1988c) What is ordinary memory the memory of? In: Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory, ed. Neisser, U. & Winograd, E.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1988d) New vistas in the study of memory. In: Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory, ed. Neisser, U. & Winograd, E.. Cambridge University Press. [LK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1991) A case of misplaced nostalgia. American Psychologist 46:34–37. [aAK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. & Fivush, R., Eds. (in press) The remembered self. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. & Harsch, N. (1992) Phantom flashbulbs: False recollections of hearing the news about Challenger. In: Affect and accuracy in recall: Studies of “flashbulb memories,” ed. Winograd, E. & Neisser, U.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK, UN]Google Scholar
Neisser, U., Hyman, I. E. Jr, Harsch, N & Usher, J. A. (in preparation) Accuracy and distortion in memories of a seminar. [UN]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. & Winograd, E., Eds. (1988) Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory. Cambridge University Press. [aAK, UR]Google Scholar
Neisser, U., Winograd, E., Bergman, E. T, Schreiber, C. A., Palmer, S. E. & Weldon, M. S. (in press) Remembering the earthquake: Direct experience vs. hearing the news. Memory. [UN]Google Scholar
Neisser, U., Winograd, E. & Weldon, M. S. (1991) Remembering th e earthquake: “What I experienced” versus “How I heard the news.” Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Meeting of th e Psychonomic Society, San Francisco, 11, 1991. [aAK]Google Scholar
Nelson, T. (1992) Metacognition: Core readings. Allyn & Bacon. [TON]Google Scholar
Nelson, T. (1996) Consciousness and metacognition. American Psychologist, in press. [TON]Google Scholar
Nelson, T. O. & Chaiklin, S. (1980) Immediate memory for spatial location. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 6:529–45. [aAK]Google Scholar
Nelson, T. O. (1984) A comparison of current measures of the accuracy of feeling-of-knowing predictions. Psychological Bulletin 95:109–33. [aAK]Google Scholar
Nelson, T. O. & Narens, L. (1990) Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, ed. Bower, G.. American Psychologist. [aAK, GM, TON]Google Scholar
Nelson, T. O. (1994) Why investigate metacognition? In: Metacognition: Knowing about knowing, ed. Metcalfe, J. & Shimamura, A. P.. MIT Press. [aAK, TON]Google Scholar
Neusner, J., Trans. (1984) Torah from our sages: Pirke Avot (reprinted and translated from the Hebrew). Chappaqua, NY: Rossel Books. [aAK]Google Scholar
Newman, L. S. & Baumeister, R. F. (in press). Toward an explanation of the UFO abduction phenomenon: Hypnotic elaboration, extraterrestrial sadomasochism, and spurious memories. Psychological Inquiry. [IRN]Google Scholar
Nigro, G. & Neisser, U. (1983) Point of view in personal memories. Cognitive Psychology 15:467–82. [aAK]Google Scholar
Nilsson, L.-G. (1979) Functions of memory. In: Perspectives on memory research: Essays in honor of Uppsala University's 500th anniversary, ed. Nilsson, L.-G.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Nilsson, L.-G. (1987) Motivated memory: Dissociation between performance data and subjective reports. Psychological Research 49:183–88. [aAK, L-GN]Google Scholar
Norman, D. A. & Wickelgren, W. A. (1969) Strength theory of decision rules and latency in retrieval from short-term memory. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 6:192–208. [aAK]Google Scholar
O'Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. (1978) The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Oxford University Press. [HE]Google Scholar
O'Neill, W. M. (1968) The beginnings of modem psychology. Penguin. [aAK]Google Scholar
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1956) Analogy in science. American Psychologist 11:127–135. [aAK]Google Scholar
Ornstein, P. A., Gordon, B. N. & Larus, D. M. (1992) Children's memory for a personally experienced event: Implications for testimony. Applied Cognitive Psychology 6:49–60. [aAK]Google Scholar
Palmer, D. C. (1991) A behavioral interpretation of memory. In: Dialogues on verbal behavior, ed. Hayes, L. J. & Chase, P. N.. Context Press. [DCP]Google Scholar
Pelz, J., Ballard, D. & Hayhoe, M. (1993) Memory use during performance of natural visuo-motor tasks. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science [Suppl.] 34(4): 1234. [KK]Google Scholar
Peterson, L. R. & Peterson, M. J. (1959) Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology 58:193–98. [KGW]Google Scholar
Phillips, R. C. & LeDoux, J. E. (1991) Different contribution of amygdala and hippocampus to cued and contextual fear conditioning. Behavioral Ncurosdence 106:274–85. [HE]Google Scholar
Pichert, J. W. & Anderson, R. C. (1977) Taking different perspectives on a story. Journal of Educational Psychology 69:309–15. [aAK]Google Scholar
Pick, H. L. & Lockman, J. L. (1981) From frames of reference to spatial representations. In: Spatial representation and behavior across the life span, ed. Liben, L. S., Patterson, A. H. & Newcombe, N.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Pipe, M-E. & Wilson, J. C. (1994) Cues and secrets: Influences on children's event reports. Developmental Psychology 30:515–25. [KGW]Google Scholar
Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., Chatala, E. S. & Ahmad, M. (1987) Test monitoring in young grade school children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 43:96–lll. [aAK]Google Scholar
Puff, C. R., Ed. (1982) Handbook of research methods in human memory and cognition. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
R.V. D.E.F. [1995] A.J. No. 146 (Alberta Court of Appeal). [1MB]Google Scholar
R.v. Jmieff [1994] B.C.J. No. 2506 (British Columbia Court of Appeal). [1MB]Google Scholar
R. v. S.C.H. [1995] B.C.J. No. 237 (British Columbia Supreme Court). [1MB]Google Scholar
Reder, L. M. & Ritter, F. E. (1992) What determines initial feeling of knowing? Familiarity with question terms, not with the answer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18:435–51. [aAK]Google Scholar
Reid, T. (1785/1967) Essays in the intellectual powers of man. George Olms. [AB-Z]Google Scholar
Riley, D. (1962) Memory for form. In: Psychology in the making: Histories of selected research problems, ed. Postman, L.. Knopf. [aAK]Google Scholar
Rock, I. (1983) The logic of perception. MIT Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. (1980) Memory metaphors in cognitive psychology. Memory Cognition 8:231–46. [aAK, 1MB, SFL]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. (1991) They read an article? A commentary on the everyday memory controversy. American Psychologist 46:37–41. [aAK]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. & McDermott, K. B. (1995) Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 21:803–14. [CM, EW]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. & Payne, D. G. (1985) Recall criterion does not affect recall level or hypermnesia: A puzzle for generate/recognize theories. Memory Cognition 13:1–7. [aAK, CM]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., Srinivas, K. & Waddil, P. (1989) How much does guessing influence recall? Comment on Erdelyi, Finks, and Feigin-Pfau. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118:253–57. [aAK]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., Weldon, S. W. & Challis, B. H. (1989) Explaining dissociations between implicit and explicit measures of retention: A processing account. In: Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honour of Endel Tulving, ed. Roediger, H. L. & Craik, F. I. M.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Ross, M. (1989) Relation of implicit theories to the construction of personal histories. Psychological Review 96:341–57. [aAK, AWK, UR, EW]Google Scholar
Ross, M. (1989) (in press) Validating memories. In: Memory for everyday and emotional events, ed. Stein, N. L., Ornstein, P. A., Tversky, B. & Brainerd, C.. Erlbaum. [aAK, IRN]Google Scholar
Ross, M. & Buehler, R. (1994) Creative remembering. In: The remembering self: Construction and accuracy in the self-narrative, ed. Neisser, U. & Fivush, R.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Ross, M. & Holmberg, D. (1990) Recounting the past: Gender differences in the recall of events in the history of a close relationship. In: Self-inference processes: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 6, ed. Olson, J. M. & Zanna, M. P.. Erlbaum. [IRN]Google Scholar
Ross, M. & Holmberg, D. (1992) Are wives' memories for events in relationships more vivid than their husbands memories? Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 9:585–604. [IRN]Google Scholar
Ross, M. & Newby, I. R. (in press). Distinguishing memory from fantasy. Psychological Inquiry. [IRN]Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C. (1986) Autobiographical memory. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C. (1995) Memory in oral traditions: The cognitive psychology of epic, ballads, and counting-out rhymes. Oxford University Press. [UN]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1975) Notes on a schema for stories. In: Representation and understanding, ed. Bobrow, D. G. & Collins, A.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C. (1980) Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: Theoretical issues in reading comprehension, ed. Spiro, R. J., Bruce, B. C., Brewer, W. F.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C. (1989) The architecture of mind: A connectionist approach. In: Foundations of cognitive science, ed. Posner, M. I.. MIT Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L. (1986) Parallel distributed processing, vol. 1. MIT Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. & Norman, D. A. (1988) Representation in memory. In: Handbook of experimental psychology, ed. Atkinson, R. C., Herrnstein, R. J., Lindzey, G. & Luce, R. D.. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E., Smolensky, P., McClelland, J. L. & Hinton, G. E. (1986) Schemata and sequential thought processes in PDP models. In: Parallel distributed processing, vol. 2, ed. McClelland, J. L. & Humelhart, D. E.. MIT Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Schacter, D. (1987) Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: learning, Memory, and Cogniiton 13:501–18. [rAK]Google Scholar
Schacter, D. (1989) Memory. In: Foundations of cognitive science, ed. Posner, M. I.. MIT Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Schank, R. C. (1982) Dynamic memory: A theory of reminding and learning in computers and people. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Schiffman, H. R. (1990) Sensation and perception. Wiley. [DA]Google Scholar
Schlottmann, A. & Anderson, N. H. (1993) An information integration approach to phenomenal causality. Memory Cognition 21:785–801. [NHA]Google Scholar
Schneider, W. & Pressley, M. (1989) Memory development between 2 and 20. Springer-Verlag. [CM]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. L. (1994) Sources of information in metamemory: Judgments of learning and feelings of knowing. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 1:357–75. [aAK, BLS]Google Scholar
Seifert, C. M., Robertson, S. P. & Black, J. B. (1985) Types of inferences generated during reading. Journal of Memory and Language 24:405–22. [aAK]Google Scholar
Sekuler, R. & Blake, R. (1994) Perception. McGraw-Hill. [DA]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (1967) Recognition memory for words, sentences and pictures, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6:156–63. [aAK]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (1987) Toward a universal law of generalization for psychological science. Science 237:1317–23. [KGW]Google Scholar
Sherry, D. F. & Schacter, D. L. (1987) The evolution of multiple memory systems. Psychological Review 94:439–54. [aAK]Google Scholar
Shimamura, A. P. & Squire, L. R. (1986) Memory and metamemory: A study of the feeling-of-knowing phenomenon in amnesic patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12:452–60. [aAK, BLS]Google ScholarPubMed
Siegel, A. W. (1981) The extemalization of cognitive maps by children and adults: In search of ways to ask better questions. In: Spatial representation and behavior across the life span, ed. Liben, L. S., Patterson, A. H. & Newcombe, N.. Academic Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Siegel, A. W. & Schadler, M. (1977) Young peoples cognitive maps of their classroom. Child Development 48:388–94. [aAK]Google Scholar
Smith, W. M., Glenberg, A. & Bjork, R. A. (1978) Environmental context and human memory. Memory it Cognition 6:342–53. [aAK]Google Scholar
Spence, D. P. (1982) Narrative truth and historical truth. Norton. [aAK]Google Scholar
Spiro, R. J. (1980) Accommodative reconstruction in prose recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19:84–95. [aAK]Google Scholar
State of New Hampshire v. Joel Hungerford 94-S-45 through 47; State of New Hampshire v. John Morahan 93-S-1734. (Hillsborough County Superior Court, 05 23, 1995). [1MB]Google Scholar
Stem, D. (1991) Models of memory: Wittgenstein and cognitive science. Philosophical Psychology 4:203–18. [AB-Z]Google Scholar
Subkoviak, M. J. (1975) The use of multidimensional scaling in educational research. Review of Educational Research 45:387–423. [aAK]Google Scholar
Sulsky, L. M. & Balzer, W. K. (1988) Meaning and measurement of performance rating accuracy: Some methodological and theoretical concerns. Journal of Applied Psychology 73:497–506. [aAK]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1962) Subjective organization in free recall of “unrelated” words. Psychological Review 69:344–54. [aAK]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1979) Memory research: What kind of progress? In: Perspectives on memory research: Essays in honor of Uppsala University's 500th anniversary, ed. Nilsson, L.-G.. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1983) Elements of episodic memory. Clarendon Press. [aAK, RPF, BLS, EW]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1985a) How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist 40:385–98. [aAK]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1991) Memory research is not a zero-sum game. American Psychologist 46:41–42. [aAK, EG]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. & Pearlstone, Z. (1966) Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 5:381–91. [EW]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. & Thomson, D. M. (1973) Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review 80:352–73. [aAK, LK]Google Scholar
Tversky, B. (1981) Distortions in memory for maps. Cognitive Psychology 13:407–33. [aAK]Google Scholar
Tversky, B. & Schiano, D. J. (1989) Perceptual and conceptual factors in distortions in memory for graphs and maps. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118:387–98. [aAK]Google Scholar
Wagenaar, W. A. (1986) My memory: A study of autobiographical memory over six years. Cognitive Psychology 18:225–52. [EW]Google Scholar
Wagenaar, W. A. & Boer, H. P. A. (1987) Misleading postevent information: Testing parameterized models of integration in memory. Acta Psychologica 66:291–306. [aAK]Google Scholar
Waterman, S. & Gordon, D. (1984) A quantitative-comparative approach to analysis of distortion in mental maps. Professional Geographer 36:326–37. [aAK]Google Scholar
Watkins, M. J. (1990) Mediationism and the obfuscation of memory. American Psychologist 45:328–35. [aAK]Google Scholar
Watkins, M. J. & Tulving, E. (1975) Episodic memory: When recognition fails. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104:5–29. [aAK, LK]Google Scholar
Waugh, N. C. & Norman, D. A. (1965) Primary memory. Psychological Review 72:89–104. [aAK]Google Scholar
Weiner, B. (1966a) Effects of motivation on the availability and retrieval of memory traces. Psychological Bulletin 65:24–37. [aAK]Google Scholar
Weiner, B. (1966b) Motivation and memory. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 80(18) Whole No. 626. [aAK]Google Scholar
Weingardt, K. R., Leonesio, R. J. & Loftus, E. F. (1994) Viewing eyewitness research from a metacognitive perspective. In: Metacognition: Knowing about knowing, ed. Metcalfe, J. & Shimamura, A. P.. MIT Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Wells, G. L. & Lindsay, R. C. L. (1985) Methodological notes on the accuracy confidence relation in eyewitness identifications. Journal of Applied Psychology 70:413–19. [aAK]Google Scholar
Wells, G. L. & Loftus, E. F., Eds. (1984) Eyewitness testimony: Psychological perspectives. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Wells, G. L., & Turtle, (1988) What is the best way to encode faces? In: Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, vol 1, ed. Gruneberg, M., Morris, P. & Sykes, R.. Wiley. [aAK]Google Scholar
White, K. G. (1985) Characteristics of forgetting functions in delayed matching-to-sample. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 44:15–34. [KGW]Google Scholar
White, K. G. (1991) Psychophysics of direct remembering. In: Signal detection: Mechanisms, models and applications, ed. Commons, M. L., Nevin, J. A. & Davison, M. C.. Erlbaum. [KGW]Google Scholar
White, K. G. & Cooney, E. B. (in press) Consequences of remembering: Independence of performance at different retention intervals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes. [KGW]Google Scholar
White, R. T. (1982) Memory for personal events. Human Learning 1:171–83. [aAK]Google Scholar
Wilkening, F. & Anderson, N. H. (1991) Representation and diagnosis of knowledge structures in development psychology. In: Contributions to information theory: vol. 3. Developmental, ed. Anderson, N. H.. Erlbaum. [NHA]Google Scholar
Winograd, E. (1988) Continuities between ecological and laboratory approaches to memory. In: Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory, ed. Neisser, U. & Winograd, E.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Winograd, E. (1991) The case for both approaches to memory. Paper presented at the International Conference on Memory (07 1991), Lancaster, U.K. [LK]Google Scholar
Winograd, E. (1994) Comments on the authenticity and utility of memories. In: The remembering self: Construction and accuracy in the self-narrative, ed. Neisser, U. & Fivush, R.. Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Winograd, E. & Neisser, U., Eds. (1992) Affect and accuracy in recall: Studies of “flashbulb memories.” Cambridge University Press. [aAK]Google Scholar
Wittgenstein, L. (1980) Remarks on the philosophy of psychology, vol. 1. Blackwell. [MAC]Google Scholar
Wixted, J. T. & Ebbesen, E. (1991) On the form of forgetting. Psychological Science 2:409–415. [KGW]Google Scholar
Woodworth, R. S. (1938) Experimental psychology. Holt. [HPB]Google Scholar
Wright, D. B. (in press) Methodological issues for naturalistic event memory research. To appear in: Intersections in basic and applied memory research, ed. Payne, D. & Conrad, F.. Erlbaum. [DBW]Google Scholar
Yaniv, I. & Foster, D. P. (1990) Judgment, graininess, and categories. In: Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Cognitive Science Society. Erlbaum. [aAK]Google Scholar
Yaniv, I. (1994) Graininess of judgement under uncertainty: An accuracy informativeness trade-off. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 124:424–32. [aAK]Google Scholar
Yaniv, I., Yates, J. F. & Smith, J. E. K. (1991) Measures of discrimination skill in probabilistic judgment. Psychological Bulletin 110:611–17. [aAK]Google Scholar
Yates, J. F. (1982) External correspondence: Decompositions of the mean probability score. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 30:132–56. [aAK]Google Scholar
Yates, J. F. (1990) Judgment and decision-making. Prentice-Hall. [aAK]Google Scholar