An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)
Article purchase
Temporarily unavailable
References
Abarca, N. & Fantino, E. (1982) Choice and foraging. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior38:117–23. [MNB, TC. tarEF, BFP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abarca, N., Fantino, E. & Ito, M. (1985) Percentage reward in an operant analogue to foraging. Animal Behaviour33. In press. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Abs, M., ed. (1983) Physiology and behaviour of the pigeon. Academic Press. [DMW]Google Scholar
Allison, J., Miller, M. & Wozny, M. (1979) Conservation in behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General108:4–34. [BFP]Google Scholar
Altmann, J. (1974) Observational study of behavior: Sampling methods. Behavior49:227–62. [taEF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amsel, A. (1967) Partial reinforcement effects on vigor and persistence. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 1, ed. Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T.. Academic Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
Arnold, S. J. (1981) The microevolution of feeding behavior. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T.. Garland Press. [MBS]Google Scholar
Autor, S. M. (1960) The strength of conditioned reinforcers as a function of frequency and probability of reinforcement. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Autor, S. M. (1969) The strength of conditioned reinforcers as a function of frequency and probability of reinforcement. In: Conditioned reinforcement, ed. Hendry, D. P.. Dorsey Press. [taEF]Google Scholar
Balsam, P. (1984) Relative time in trace conditioning. In: Timing and time perception, ed. Gibbon, J. & Allan, L.. New York Academy of Sciences. [BLB, rEF]Google Scholar
Barker, L. M., Best, M. R. & Domjan, M., eds. (1977) Learning mechanisms in food selection. Baylor University Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
Barnard, C. J. (1984) Snap decisions on survival. New Scientist102(1411):24–27. [CJB]Google Scholar
Barnard, C. J. & Brown, C. A. J. (1981) Prey size selection and competition in the common shrew (Sorex araneus L.). Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology8:239–43. [CJB]Google Scholar
Barnard, C. J. & Brown, C. A. J. (in press a) Risk-sensitive foraging in common shrews (Sorex araneus L.). Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology.. [CJB]Google Scholar
Barnard, C. J. & Brown, C. A. J. (in press b) Competition affects risk-sensitivity in foraging shrews. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology. [CJB]Google Scholar
Bauer, S. J. & Sokolowski, M. B. (1984) Larval foraging behaviour in isofemale lines of Drosophila melanogaster and D. pseudobscura. Journal of Heredity75:131–34. [MBS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1972) Choice in a continuous procedure. Psychonomic Science28:263–65. [MD]Google Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1982) Choice, changeover, and travel. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior38:35–49. [taEF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1983) Studying foraging in the psychological laboratory. In: Animal cognition and behavior, ed. Mellgren, R. L.. North-Holland. [taEF, BFF]Google Scholar
Belovsky, G. E. (1978) Diet optimization in a generalist herbivore: The moose. Theoretical Population Biology14:105–34. [TC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, A. B. (1983) The foraging behaviour of lacewing larvae on vertical rods. Animal Behaviour31:990–1004. [PB]Google Scholar
Bovet, P. (1979) La valeur adaptative des comportements aléatoires. L'Année psychologique79:505–25. [PB]Google Scholar
Broom, D. M. (1981) Biology of behaviour: Mechanisms, functions and applications. Cambridge University Press. [JH]Google Scholar
Brown, B. L., Hemmes, N. S., Coleman, D. A.Jr, Hassin, A. & Goldhammer, E. (1982) Specification of the stimulus-reinforcer relation in multiple schedules: Delay and probability of reinforcement. Animal Learning and Behavior10:365–76. [BLB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R. G. B. (1969) Seed selection by pigeons. Behaviour34:115–31. [SJS]Google Scholar
Brunswick, E. (1939) Probability as a determiner of rat behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology25:175–97. [PB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capaldi, E. J. (1967) A sequential hypothesis of instrumental learning. In: The psychology of learning & motivation, vol. 1, ed. Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T.. Academic Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
Caraco, T. (1980) On foraging time allocation in a stochastic environment. Ecology61:119–28. [PB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caraco, T.(1981) Energy budgets, risk and foraging preferences in dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology8:213–17. [CJB, tarEF]Google Scholar
Caraco, T. (1982) Aspects of risk-aversion in foraging white-crowned sparrows. Animal Behaviour30:719–27. [taEF]Google Scholar
Caraco, T. (1983) White-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys): Foraging preferences in a risky environment. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology12:63–69. [CJB, taEF]Google Scholar
Caraco, T., Martindale, S. & Whittam, T. S. (1980) An empirical demonstration of risk-sensitive foraging preferences. Animal Behaviour28:820–30. [taEF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, D. & Fantino, E. (1981) The delay-reduction hypothesis of conditioned reinforcement and punishment: Observing behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior35:93–108. [taEF]Google Scholar
Charman, L. & Davison, M. (1982) On the effects of component durations and component reinforcer rates in multiple schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior37:417–39. [MD]Google Scholar
Charman, L. & Davison, M. (1983) On the effects of food deprivation and component reinforcer rates on multiple-schedule performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior40:239–51. [MD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charnov, E. L. (1976a) Optimal foraging: Attack strategy of a mantid. American Naturalist110:141–51. (TC, taEF, AK, JNM]Google Scholar
Charnov, E. L. (1976b) Optimal foraging: The marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology9:129–36. [taEF, AK, JMK, PRK, JNM, RLM]Google Scholar
Collier, G. H., Hirsch, E. & Hamlin, P. H. (1972) The ecological determinants of reinforcement in the rat. Physiology and Behavior9:705–16. [taEF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collier, G. H. & Rovee-Collier, C. K. (1981) A comparative analysis of optimal foraging behavior: Laboratory simulation. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T.. Garland Press.[taEF, JMK, MBS]Google Scholar
Collier, G. H. & Rovee-Collier, C. K. (1983) An ecological perspective of reinforcement and motivation. In: Handbook of behavioural neurobiology, vol. 6, ed. Satinoff, E. & Teitelbaum, P.. Plenum Press. [taEF, NR]Google Scholar
Cook, R. M. & Cockrell, B. J. (1978) Predator ingestion rate and its bearing on feeding time and the theory of optimal diets. Journal of Animal Ecology47:529–47. [JH, JNM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowie, R. J. (1977) Optimal foraging in great tits (Parus major). Nature268:137–39. [taEF, AK]Google Scholar
Davies, N. B. & Houston, A. I. (1981) Owners and satellites: The economics of territory defence in the pied wagtail, Motacilla alba. Journal of Animal Ecology50:157–80. [CJB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davison, M. (1969) Preference for mixed-interval versus fixed-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior12:247–52. [taEF]Google Scholar
Davison, M. (1972) Preference for mixed-interval versus fixed-interval: Number of component intervals. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior17:169–76. [taEF]Google Scholar
Davison, M. (in press) The analysis of concurrent-chain performance. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 5: The effects of delay and of intervening events, ed. Commons, M. L., Nevin, J. A., Rachlin, H. C. & Mazur, J. E.. Ballinger. [MD]Google Scholar
Dinsmoor, J. A. (1977) Escape, avoidance, punishment: Where do we stand?Journal of the Experimental Analyses of Behavior28:83–95. [JAD]Google Scholar
Dinsmoor, J. A. (1983) Observing and conditioned reinforcement. Behavioral and Brain Sciences6:693–728. [tarEF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Domjan, M. & Burkhard, B. (1982) The principles of learning and behavior. Brooks/Cole. [JAD]Google Scholar
Donovan, W. J. (1978) Structure and function of the pigeon visual system. Physiological Psychology6:403–37. [DMW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, R. & Fantino, E. (1982) Choice and the relative immediacy of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior38:321–26. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Dunn, R. M. (1982) Choice, relative reinforcer duration, and the changeover ratio. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior38:313–19. [taEF]Google Scholar
Ehrman, L. & Parsons, P. A. (1976) The genetics of behavior. Sinauer Associates. [MBS]Google Scholar
Elliffe, D. & Davison, M. (submitted) Performance in continuously availablemultiple schedules. [MD]Google Scholar
Elner, R. W. & Hughes, R. N. (1978) Energy maximization in the diet of the shore crab, Carcinus maenas. Journal of Animal Ecology47:103–16. [JNM]Google Scholar
Emlen, J. M. (1966) The role of time and energy in food preference. American Naturalist100:611–17. [JNM]Google Scholar
Epstein, R. (in press) Simulation research in the analysis of behavior. In: Control of human behavior: Issues in applied behavior analysis research methodology, vol. 4, ed. Poling, A., Fuqua, R. W. & Ulrich, R.. Scott, Foresman. [MSa]Google Scholar
Erichsen, J. T., Krebs, J. R. & Houston, A. L. (1980) Optimal foraging and cryptic prey. Journal of Animal Ecology49:271–76. [AK]Google Scholar
Essock, S. & Reese, E. P. (1974) Preference for and effects of variable — as opposed to fixed — reinforcer duration. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior21:89–97. [taEF]Google Scholar
Estes, W. K. & Skinner, B. F. (1941) Some quantitative properties of anxiety. Journal of Experimental Psychology29:390–400. [BLB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eward, J. M. (1913) Is the appetite of swine a reliable indication of physiological needs?Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences22:375–403. [TWC]Google Scholar
Falconer, D. S. (1970) Introduction to quantitative genetics. Oliver and Boyd. [MBS]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1967) Preference for mixed versus fixed-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior10:35–43. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1969) Choice and rate of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior12:723–30. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1977) Conditioned reinforcement: Choice and information. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Prentice-Hall. [taEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1981a) Contiguity, response strength, and the delay-reduction hypothesis. In: Advances in analysis of behavior, vol. 2: Predictability, correlation and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D.. John Wiley & Sons. [taEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1981b) Is maximization theory general, and is it refutable?Behavioral and Brain Sciences4:390–91. [taEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1982) Effects of initial-link length on responding in terminal link. Behaviour Analysis Letters2:65–70. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1984) Operant conditioning simulations of foraging and the delay-reduction hypothesis. Paper presented at Foraging Behavior Conference, Providence, R.I. [rEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E., Abarca, N. & Dunn, R. (in press) The delay-reduction hypothesis: Extensions to foraging and three-alternative choice. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 5: Beinforcement value: Delay and intervening events, ed. Commons, M. L., Mazur, J. E., Nevin, J. A., & Rachlin, H.. Erlbaum. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. & Davison, M. (1983) Choice: Some quantitative relations. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior40:1–13. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. & Dunn, R. (1983) The delay-reduction hypothesis: Extension to three-alternative choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes9:132–46. [TC, tarEF, AIH]Google Scholar
Fantino, E., Dunn, R. & Meck, W. (1979) Percentage reinforcement and choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior32:335–40. [taEF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. & Logan, C. (1979) The experimental analysis of behavior: A biological perspective. W. H. Freeman. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Felton, M. & Lyon, D. O. (1966) The post-reinforcement pause. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior9:131–34. [taEF]Google Scholar
Ferster, C. B. & Skinner, B. F. (1957) Schedules of reinforcement. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [taEF]Google Scholar
Galef, B. C.Jr. (1976) Social transmission of acquired behavior: A discussion of tradition and social learning in vertebrates. In: Advances in the study of behavior, vol. 6., ed. Rosenblatt, J., Hinde, R. A., Beer, C. & Shaw, E.. Academic Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
Carcia, J., Kimmeldorf, D. J. & Koelling, R. A. (1955) Conditioned aversion to saccharin resulting from exposure to gamma radiation. Science122:157–58. [BLB]Google Scholar
Gass, C. L. (1984) Behavioural foundations of adaptation. In: Perspectives in ethology, vol. 6, ed. Bateson, P. P. C. & Klopfer, P. H.. Plenum Press. [CLG]Google Scholar
Gass, C. L. & Montgomerie, R. D. (1981) Hummingbird foraging behavior: Decision-making and energy regulation. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D.. Garland Press. [CLG, DMW]Google Scholar
Gass, C. L. & Sutherland, G. D. (in press) Specialization by territorial hummingbirds on experimentally enriched patches of flowers: Profitability and learning. Canadian Journal of Zoology. [CLG]Google Scholar
George, C. (1971) Choix et apprentissage en situation aléatoire. Paris: C.N.R.S. [PB]Google Scholar
Gibb, J. (1960) Populations of tits and goldcrests and their food supply in pine plantations. Ibis102:163–208. [JH]Google Scholar
Gibbon, J. (1977) Scalar expectancy theory and Weber's law in animal timing. Psychological Review84:279–325. [taEF]Google Scholar
Gibbon, J. & Balsam, P. (1981) Spreading association in time. In: Autoshaping and conditioning theory, ed. Lucurto, C. M., Terrace, H. S. & Gibbon, J.. Academic Press. [BLB, taEF]Google Scholar
Gibbon, J., Berryman, R. & Thompson, R. L. (1974) Contingency spaces and measures in classical and instrumental conditioning. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior21:585–605. [JAD]Google Scholar
Gill, F. B. & Wolf, L. L. (1977) Nonrandom foraging by sunbirds in a patchy environment. Ecology58:1284–96. [JMK]Google Scholar
Ciller, P. S. (1980) The control of handling time and its effects on the foraging strategy of a heteropteran predator, Notonecta. Journal of Animal Ecology49:699–712. [JNM]Google Scholar
Goodwin, D. (1970) Pigeons and doves of the world. British Museum. [DMW]Google Scholar
Goodwin, D. (1983) Behaviour. In: Physiology and behaviour of the pigeon, ed. Abs, M.. Academic Press. [DMW]Google Scholar
Goss-Custard, J. D. (1977) Optimal foraging and the size selection of worms by redshank, Tringa totanus, in the field. Animal Behaviour25:10–29. [CJB, taEF, JH]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Lewontin, R. C. (1979) The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptionist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London205:581–98. [JNM]Google Scholar
Granda, A. M. & Maxwell, M. A., eds. (1979) Neural mechanisms of behavior in the pigeon. Plenum Press. [DMW]Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1982) The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
Gray, L. (1981) Genetic and experiential differences affecting foraging behavior. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T.. Garland Press. [MBS]Google Scholar
Gray, R. (1984) Faith and foraging: A critique of optimal foraging theory. Paper presented at the Foraging Behavior Conference, Providence, R.I. [JH]Google Scholar
Griffiths, D. (1982) Tests of alternative models of prey consumption by predators, using ant-lion larvae. Journal of Animal Ecology52:363–73. [JNM]Google Scholar
Hall, W. G. & Williams, C. L. (1983) Suckling isn't feeding, or is it? A search for developmental continuities. In: Advances in the study of behavior, vol. 13, ed. Rosenblatt, J. S., Hinde, R. A., Beer, C. & Busnel, M.-C.. Academic Press. [NR]Google Scholar
Hall-Johnson, E. & Poling, A. (1984) Preference in pigeons given a choice between sequences of fixed-ratio schedules: Effects of ratio values and duration of food delivery. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior42:127–35. [rEF]Google Scholar
Hanson, J. & Green, L. (1984a) Tests of optimal foraging using an operant analogue. Paper presented at the Association for Behavior Analysis meeting, Nashville, Tenn. [JH]Google Scholar
Hanson, J. & Green, L. (1984b) Patch choice by pigeons. Paper presented at the Foraging Behavior Conference, Providence, R.I. [JH]Google Scholar
Hanson, J. & Green, L. (1984c) Foraging decisions: Patch choice by pigeons. In preparation. [JH]Google Scholar
Hanson, S. J. & Timberlake, W. (1983) Regulation during challenge: A general model of learned performance under schedule constraint. Psychological Review56:261–82. [BFP]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1964a) Secondary reinforcement and the rate of primary reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior7:27–36. [tarEF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. (1964b) Aperiodicity as a factor in choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior7:179–82. [taEF]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Loveland, D. H. (1974) Hunger and contrast in a multiple schedule. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21:511–17. [MD]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Vaughan, W. (1980) Melioration and behavioral allocation. In: Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press. [CJB]Google Scholar
Hewitt, S. K., Fulker, D. W. & Hewitt, C. A. (1983) Genetic architecture of olfactory discriminative avoidance conditioning in Drosophila melanogaster. Journal of Comparative Psychology97:52–58. [MBS]Google Scholar
Hirsch, J. & McCauley, L. A. (1977) Successful replication of and selective breeding for classical conditioning in the blowfly Phormia regina. Animal Behaviour25:784–85. [MBS]Google Scholar
Honig, W. K. (1966) Operant behavior: Areas of research and application. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [taEF]Google Scholar
Honig, W. K. & Staddon, J. E. R. (1977) Handbook of operant behavior. Prentice-Hall. [taEF]Google Scholar
Houston, A. I. (1980) Godzilla v. the creature from the black lagoon: Ethology v. psychology. In: Analysis of motivational processes, ed. Toates, F. M. & Halliday, T. R.. Academic Press. [MSn]Google Scholar
Houston, A. I. (unpub.) Choice and preference. [AIH]Google Scholar
Houston, A. L., Krebs, J. R. & Erichsen, J. T. (1980) Optimal prey choice and discrimination time in the great tit (Parus major L). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology6:169–75. [AK]Google Scholar
Houston, A. I. & McNamara, J. M. (1981) How to maximize reward rate on two variable interval paradigms. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior35:367–96. [AIH]Google Scholar
Houston, A. I. & McNamara, J. M. (1982) A sequential approach to risk-taking. Animal Behaviour30:1260–61. [taEF]Google Scholar
Howell, D. J. & Hartl, D. L. (1980) Optimal foraging in glossophagine bats: When to give up. American Naturalist115:696–704. [JMK]Google Scholar
Hughes, R. N. (1979) Optimal diets under the energy maximization premise: The effects of recognition time and learning. American Naturalist113:209–21. [TC, AK, JNM]Google Scholar
Hunter, I. & Davison, M. (in press) Determination of a behavioral transfer function: White noise analysis of session to session response ratio dynamics on concurrent VI–VI schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Hursh, S. R. (1980) Economic concepts for the analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior34:219–38. [MNB, taEF, BFP, MSa]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hursh, S. R. & Fantino, E. (1973) Relative delay of reinforcement and choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior19:437–50. [taEF]Google Scholar
Ito, M. & Asaki, K. (1982) Choice behavior of rats in a concurrent-chains schedule: Amount and delay of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior37:383–92. [taEF]Google Scholar
Ito, M. & Fantino, E. (1983) Choice, foraging and reinforcer duration. In preparation. [taEF]Google Scholar
Iwasa, Y., Higashi, M. & Yamamura, N. (1981) Prey distribution as a factor determining the choice of optimal foraging strategy. American Naturalist117:710–23. [RFC]Google Scholar
Jenkins, H. M., Barnes, R. A. & Barrera, F. J. (1981) Why autoshaping depends on trial spacing. In: Autoshaping and conditioning theory, ed. Locurto, C. M., Terrace, H. S. & Gibbon, J.. Academic Press. [taEF]Google Scholar
Jenkins, H. M. & Shattuck, D. (1981) Contingency in fear conditioning: A reexamination. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society17:159–62. [taEF]Google Scholar
Kagel, J. H., McDonald, D. N., Battalio, R. C., White, S. & Green, L. (in preparation). Effects of varying energy budgets on risk preferences in rats. [CJB]Google Scholar
Kamil, A. C. (1983) Optimal foraging theory and the psychology of learning. American Zoologist23:291–302. [JNM]Google Scholar
Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D. (1981) Foraging Behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches. Garland Press. [taEF, RFG, MBS]Google Scholar
Kamil, A. C. & Yoerg, S. I. (1982) Learning and foraging behaviour. In: Perspectives in ethology, vol. 5, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Klopfer, P. H.. Plenum Press. [CLG]Google Scholar
Kay, D., Hemmes, N. S. & Brown, B. L. (1984) Choice measures and the assessment of temporal control in autoshaping. Proceedings and Abstracts of the 1984 Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association55:32. [BLB]Google Scholar
Kendall, S. B. (1974) Preference for intermittent reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior21:463–73. [taEF]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1968) On the measurement of reinforcement frequency in the study of preference. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior11:263–69. [taEF]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1982a) Incentive theory. In: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. Bernstein, D. J.. University of Nebraska Press. [PRK, SEGL]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1982b) Incentive theory 2: Models for choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior38:217–32. [taEF, PRK, SEGL]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1984) Incentive theory 3: Adaptive clocks. In: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 423: Timing and time perception, ed. Gibbon, J. & Allan, L.. New York Academy of Sciences. [PRK]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R., Smith, J. P. & Hanson, S. J. (1981) Central place foraging in Rattus norvegicus. Animal Behaviour29:64–70. [taEF]Google Scholar
Korber, E. J. (1983) The foraging behavior of a Columba livia flock as a function of resource allocation and patch size. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association Meeting, Philadelphia. [DMW]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. (1973) Behavioral aspects of predation. In: Perspectives in ethology, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Klopfer, P. H.. Plenum Press. [RLM]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. (1978) Optimal foraging: Decision rules for predators. In: Behavioural ecology, ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B.. Blackwell. [taEF]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B. (1981) An introduction to behavioural ecology. Blackwell. [taEF]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Erichsen, J. T., Webber, M. I. & Charnov, E. L. (1977) Optimal prey selection in the great tit (Parus major). Animal Behavior25:30–38. [CJB, taEF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Houston, A. I. & Charnov, E. L. (1981) Some recent developments in optimal foraging. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D.. Garland Press. [taEF]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Kacelnik, A. & Taylor, P. (1978) Test of optimal sampling by foraging great tits. Nature275:27–31. [CJB, PB, SEGL]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Kacelnik, A. & Taylor, P. (1981) Correlation and contiguity in foraging behaviour. In: Advances in analysis of behaviour, vol. 2: Predictability, correlation, and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D.. John Wiley & Sons. [CJB, taEF]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & McClecry, R. H. (1984) Optimization in behavioural ecology. In: Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach, 2d ed., ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B.. Blackwell. [TC]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Ryan, J. C. & Charnov, E. L. (1974) Hunting by expectation or optimal foraging? A study of patch use by chickadees. Animal Behavior22:953–64. [rEF, RFG, JNM]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Stephens, D. W. & Sutherland, W. J. (1983) Perspectives in optimal foraging. In: Perspectives in ornithology, ed. Brush, A. H. & Clarke, G. A.. Cambridge University Press. [CJB, taEF, DMW]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1976) Titration of schedule parameters by pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior25:43–54. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1979) Foraging and reinforcement schedules in the pigeon: Optimal and non-optimal aspects of choice. Animal Behavior27:875–86. [taEF, AIH, JMK, BFP, SJS]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. & Dow, S. M. (1984) The integration of reinforcements over time. In: Timing and time perception, ed. Gibbon, J. & Allan, L.. New York Academy of Sciences. [rEF, SEGL]Google Scholar
Lefebvre, L. (1983) Equilibrium distribution of feral pigeons at multiple food sources. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology12:11–17. [DMW]Google Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1970) The units of selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics1:1–18. [MBS]Google Scholar
Lucas, J. R. (1983) The role of foraging time constraints and variable prey encounter in optimal diet choice. American Naturalist122:191–209. [TC]Google Scholar
Luce, R. D. (1977) The choice axiom after twenty years. Journal of Mathematical Psychology15:215–33. [taEF]Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. H. & Pianka, E. R. (1966) On optimal use of a patchy environment. American Naturalist100:603–9. [taEF, JNM]Google Scholar
McGuire, T. R. & Hirsch, J. (1977) Behavior genetic analysis of Phormia regina: Conditioning, reliable individual differences and selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America74:5193–97. [MBS]Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1974) The psychology of animal learning. Academic Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
McNair, J. N. (1979) A generalized model of optimal diets. Theoretical Population Biology15:159–70. [TC, JNM]Google Scholar
McNair, J. N. (1981) A stochastic foraging model with predator training effects. 2. Optimal diets. Theoretical Population Biology19:147–62. [JNM]Google Scholar
McNair, J. N. (1983) A class of patch-use strategies. American Zoologist23:303–13. [JNM]Google Scholar
McSweeney, F. K. (1975) Concurrent responding as a function of body weight. Animal Learning and Behavior3:264–70. [MD]Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1974) Models in ecology. Cambridge University Press. [JNM]Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1978) Optimization theory in evolution. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics9:31–56. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1981) Optimization theory fails to predict performance of pigeons in a two-response situation. Science214:823–25. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Mellgren, R. L. (1982) Foraging in a simulated natural environment: There's a rat loose in the lab. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior38:93–100. [taEF]Google Scholar
Metz, H. A. J., Dienske, H., de Jonge, G. & Putters, F. A. (1983) Continuous-time Markov chains as models for animal behaviour. Bulletin of Mathematical Biology45:643–58. [PB]Google Scholar
Moon, R. D. & Zeigler, H. P. (1979) Food preferences in the pigeon (Columba livia). Physiology and Behavior22:1171–82. [SJS]Google Scholar
Moore, J. (1982) Choice and multiple reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior37:115–22. [taEF]Google Scholar
Morse, D. H. (1980) Behavioral mechanisms in ecology. Harvard University Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
Murton, R. K., Coombs, C. F. B. & Thearle, R. J. P. (1972) Ecological studies of the feral pigeon Columba livia var. 2. Flock behaviour and social organization. Journal of Applied Ecology9:875–89. [DMW]Google Scholar
Navarick, D. J. & Fantino, E. (1976) Self-control and general models of choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes2:75–87. [taEF]Google Scholar
Norborg, J., Osborne, S. & Fantino, E. (1983) Duration of components and response rates on multiple fixed-ratio schedules. Animal Learning and Behavior11:51–59. [rEF]Google Scholar
Normile, H. J. & Barraco, R. A. (1984) Relation between food and water intake in the pigeon (Columba livia). Journal of Comparative Psychology98:76–90. [DMW]Google Scholar
Oaten, A. (1977) Optimal foraging in patches: A ease for stochasticity. Theoretical Population Biology12:263–85. [RFG, JNM]Google Scholar
Okubo, A. (1980) Diffusion and ecological problems: Mathematical models. Springer Verlag. [PB]Google Scholar
Olton, D. S., Handelman, G. E. & Walker, J. A. (1981) Spatial memory and food searching strategies. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D.. Garland Press. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Parizkova, J. (1977) Body fat and physical fitness. Martinus Nijhoff B.V. [NR]Google Scholar
Peck, J. W. (1980) Homeostatic analyses and relations between nutrition and ecology. In: Analysis of motivational processes, ed. Toates, F. M. & Halliday, T. R.. Academic Press. [NR]Google Scholar
Peden, B. F. & Rohe, M. S. (1984) Effects of search cost on foraging and feeding: A three-component chain analysis. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. In press. [rEF, BFP]Google Scholar
Picker, M. & Poling, A. (1982) Choice as a dependent measure in autoshaping: Sensitivity to frequency and duration of food presentation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior37:393–406. [BLB]Google Scholar
Pietrewicz, A. T. & Kamil, A. C. (1977) Visual detection of cryptic prey by blue jays (Cyanocitta cristate). Science195:580–82. [JNM]Google Scholar
Pietrewicz, A. T. & Kamil, A. C. (1979) Search image formation in the blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata). Science204:1332–33. [JNM]Google Scholar
Pietrewicz, A. T. & Kamil, A. C. (1981) Search images and the detection of cryptic prey: An operant approach. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches. ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D.. Garland Press. [JNM, RLM]Google Scholar
Pliskoff, S. S., Cicerone, R. & Nelson, T. D. (1978) Local response-rate constancy on concurrent variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior29:431–46. [taEF]Google Scholar
Pliskoff, S. S. & Fetterman, J. G. (1981) Undermatching and overmatching: The fixed-ratio changeover requirement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior36:21–27. [taEF]Google Scholar
Pulliam, H. R. (1974) On the theory of optimal diets. American Naturalist108:59–74. [TC, JNM]Google Scholar
Pyke, C. H. (1984) Optimal foraging theory: How useful is it? Paper presented at the Foraging Behavior Conference, Providence, R.I. [JH]Google Scholar
Pyke, G. H., Pulliam, H. R. & Charnov, E. L. (1977) Optimal foraging: A selective review of theory and tests. Quarterly Review of Biology52:137–54. [taEF, RFG, JH, MBS]Google Scholar
Quinn, W. G., Harris, W. A. & Benzer, S. (1974) Conditioned behavior in Drosophila melanogaster. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America71:708–12. [MBS]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H., Battalio, R., Kagel, J. & Green, L. (1981) Maximization theory in behavioral psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences4:371–417. [taEF]Google Scholar
Rappoport, D. J. (1981) Foraging behavior of Stentor coeruleus: A microeconomic interpretation. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. B.. Garland Press. [taEF]Google Scholar
Rashotte, M. E., O'Connell, J. M. & Beidler, D. L. (1982) Associative influence on the foraging behavior of the pigeon (Columba livia). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes8:142–53. [taEF, MSa]Google Scholar
Regal, P. J. (1978) Behavioral differences between reptiles and mammals: An analysis of activity and mental capacities. In: Behavior and neurology of lizards, ed. Greenberg, N. & McLean, P.. U.S. Government Printing Office. [JMK]Google Scholar
Reichman, O. J. (1981) Factors influencing foraging in desert rodents. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D.. Garland Press. [JMK]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1968) Probability of shock in the presence and absence of CS in fear conditioning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology66:1–5. [rEF]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1970) Informational variables in Pavlovian conditioning. In: Current issues in animal learning, ed. Reynierse, J. H.. University of Nebraska Press. [rEF]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In: Classical conditioning II: Current theory and research, ed. Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [BLB]Google Scholar
Rider, D. P. (1983) Preference for mixed versus constant delays of reinforcement: Effect of probability of the short, mixed delay. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior39:257–66. [taEF]Google Scholar
Rodgers, W. & Rozin, P. (1966) Novel food preferences in thiamine-deficient rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology61:1–4. [ENR]Google Scholar
Rowland, N. (1982) Failure by deprived hamsters to increase food intake: Some behavioral and physiological determinants. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology96:591–603. [NR]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. & Kalat, J. W. (1971) Specific hungers and poisoning as adaptive specializations of learning. Psychological Review78:459–86. [JMK]Google Scholar
Schoener, T. W. (1971) Theory of feeding strategies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics2:369–404. [JNM]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (1983) Memory in food-hoarding birds. Scientific American247:102–10. [CLG]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (1984a) Learning and behavioural ecology. In: Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach, 2d ed., ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B.. Blackwell. [CJB]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (1984b) Handling time and choice in pigeons. Submitted. [SJS]Google Scholar
Shull, R. L., Spear, D. J. & Bryson, A. E. (1981) Delay or rate of food delivery as a determiner of response rate. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior35:129–43. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [taEF]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1950) Are theories of learning necessary?Psychological Review57:193–216. [MNB]Google Scholar
Sokolowski, M. B. (1980) Foraging strategies of Drosophila melanogaster: A chromosomal analysis. Behavior Cenetics10:291–302. [MBS]Google Scholar
Sokolowski, M. B., Hansell, R. I. C. & Rotin, D. (1983) Larval foraging behavior. 2. Selection in the sibling species Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans. Behavior Cenetics13:169–77. [MBS]Google Scholar
Squires, N. & Fantino, E. (1971) A model for choice in simple concurrent and concurrent-chains schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior15:27–38. [taEF]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1964) Reinforcement as input: Cyclic variable-interval schedule. Science145:410–12. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1979) Operant behavior as adaptation to constraint. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General108:46–87. [BFP]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1980) Optimality analyses of operant behavior and their relation to optimal foraging. In: Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press. [CJB, tarEF]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1983) Adaptive behavior and learning. Cambridge University Press. [tarEF]Google Scholar
Stephens, D. W. (1982) Stochasticity in foraging theory: Risk and information. D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University. [taEF]Google Scholar
Thompson, D. B. A. & Barnard, C. J. (1984) Prey selection by plovers: Optimal foraging in mixed species groups. Animal Behaviour32:554–63. [CJB]Google Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1980) A molar equilibrium theory of learned performance. In: The psychology of learning and motivation: Vol. 14, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [BFP]Google Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1984) A temporal limit on the effect of future food on current performance in an analogue of foraging and welfare. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior41:117–24. [MNB]Google Scholar
Timberlake, W. & Allison, J. (1974) Response deprivation: An empirical approach to instrumental performance. Psychological Review81:146–64. [BFP]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, L. (1960) The natural control of insects in pinewoods. I. Factors influencing the intensity of predation by songbirds. Archives Néerlandaises de Zoologie13:265–343. [RLM]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. & Brunswick, E. (1935) The organism and causal texture of the environment. Psychological Review42:43–77. [PB]Google Scholar
Waage, J. K. (1979) Foraging for patchily-distributed hosts by the parasitoid, Nemeritis canescens. Journal of Animal Ecology48:353–71. [JNM]Google Scholar
Waddington, K. D. (1982) Optimal diet theory: Sequential and simultaneous encounter models. Oikos39:278–80. [rEF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waddington, K. D. & Holden, R. (1979) Optimal foraging: On flower selection by bees. American Naturalist114:179–96. [TC]Google Scholar
Wahlsten, D. (1972) Genetic experiments with animal learning: A critical view. Behavioural Biology7:143–82. [MBS]Google Scholar
Wahlsten, D. (1978) Behavioral genetics and animal learning. In: Psychopharmacology of aversively motivated behavior, ed. Anisman, H. & Bignami, G.. Plenum Press. [MBS]Google Scholar
Wasserman, E. A., Franklin, S. R. & Hearst, E. (1974) Pavlovian appetitive contingencies and approach versus withdrawal to conditioned stimuli in pigeons. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology86:616–27. [BLB]Google Scholar
Werner, G. E. & Hall, D. J. (1974) Optimal foraging and size selection of prey by the bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). Ecology55:1042–52. [taEF, JNM]Google Scholar
Werner, E. E., Mittelbach, G. G. & Hall, D. J. (1981) The role of foraging profitability and experience in habitat use by the bluegill sunfish. Ecology62:116–25. [CLG]Google Scholar
Young, J. S. (1981) Discrete-trial choice in pigeons: Effects of reinforcer magnitude. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior35:23–29. [taEF]Google Scholar
Young, P. T. (1967) Palatability: The hedonic response to foodstuff. In: Handbook of physiology: Alimentary canal, ed. Code, C. F.. Waverly Press. [TWC]Google Scholar
Zeigler, H. P., Green, H. L. & Lehrer, R. (1971) Patterns of feeding behavior in the pigeon. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology76:468–77. [DMW]Google Scholar
Zeigler, H. P., Green, H. L. & Siegel, J. (1972) Food and water intake and weight regulation in the pigeon. Physiology and Behavior8:127–34. [DMW]Google Scholar
Zweers, G. A. (1982a) Drinking of the pigeon Columba livia L.). Behaviour80:274–317. [DMW]Google Scholar
Zweers, G. A. (1982b) Pecking of the pigeon (Columba livia L.). Behaviour81:173–230. [DMW]Google Scholar