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Chinese Education After Mao: Two Steps Forward, Two Steps Back and Begin Again?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2009

Suzanne Pepper
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Of all the sayings attributed to Deng Xiaoping, his commentary on the colour of cats is surely the most famous. Thanks to the radical campaign against him in 1976, all of China was reminded that Deng did not care whether a cat was black or white – so long as it could catch mice it was good enough for him. This was said to demonstrate his lack of commitment to political principle. As a consequence he was hailed outside China as a pragmatist and a moderate bent on seeking the shortest, quickest route towards his country's modernization, s of the political or ideological implications of the means adopted.

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Research Article
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The China Quarterly , Volume 81 , March 1980, pp. 1 - 65
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Copyright © The China Quarterly 1980

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References

1. Pepper, Suzanne, “ Education and revolution: the ‘Chinese model’ revised,” Asian Survey (09 1978), pp. 852–74Google Scholar.

2. Besides the conventional materials, my sources for this study include'the notes from my three trips to China in 1975, 1977 and 1978, and also China trip notes shared with me by friends and acquaintances. My own trip notes are cited as CTSP and those of others as CTX where anonymity was requested. Particulars are given wherever possible. I have also interviewed former Chinese teachers and students now living in Hong Kong. The information they provided is cited by their interview file number, as HK–1, HK–2. I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many China travellers, not all of whom could be acknowledged in the footnotes, who have’ shared their notes and impressions with me.

3. Pepper, Suzanne, “An interview on changes in Chinese education after the ‘gang of four’,” The China Quarterly, No. 72 (12 1977), pp. 815–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar;

4. Ibid. pp. 815, 820–21.

5. Hua Guofeng, “Report on the work of the government,” Second Session, Fifth National People's Congress, 18 June 1979, in Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 25 June 1979, Xinhua News Bulletin, Hong Kong, 26 06 1979, p. 34Google Scholar; Guofeng, Hua, “Report on the work of the government,” First Session, Fifth National People's Congress, 26 February 1978, in Peking Review, No. 10 (10 03 1978), p. 28Google Scholar;

6. Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 23 September 1979, Xinhua News Bulletin (hereafter Bulletin), Hong Kong, 24 09 1979Google Scholar;

7. Education Ministry interview, Beijing, CTX, June 1978.

8. radio, Shanghai, 29 October 1978, Joint Publications Research Service (JPRS) /72321/PRC/470, 28 11 1978Google Scholar; Interview file, HK–16, May 1978, pp. 16, 17, 25; Nanjing educators, April 1978, from Susan Shirk's trip notes; and Saywell, William, “Chinese education since Mao,” draft, p. 1Google Scholar; My thanks toDrSaywell, for allowing me to read this draft, based on his 06 1979 trip to China, prior to its forthcoming publication in The Canadian Journal of Higher Education, VoL X, No. 1Google Scholar;

9. According to the trip notes of Keyes, Susan, Shanghai, , August 1978, and Ctangnting ribao, Beijing, 6 09 1979, p. 1Google Scholar; respectively.

10. Pepper, , “Education and revolution,” pp. 848, 853–58Google Scholar.

11. Xinhua-Chinese, , Beijing, , 5 February 1978, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), 9 02 1978, E–5Google Scholar;

12. Haikou, Hainan radio, 25 March 1978, FBIS, 28 March 1978, H–11; also, Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 30 March 1978, FBIS, 30 March 1978, H–8.

13. About this same proportion was also reported from Anhui Province which claimed to have a total of 300,000 primary and secondary school teachers, 70% of whom were minban (Hefei, Anhui radio, 27 July 1978, FBIS, 1 August 1978, G–l). Four Guangdong counties also reported a similar proportion of minban teachers(Guangming ribao, Beijing, 20 05 1979, p. 1)Google Scholar;

14. North China, CTX, 1978.

15. Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 13 May 1978, FBIS, 15 May 1978, H–2; S Tianjin radio, 22 February 1978, FBIS, 8 March 1978, K–2. f 16. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 12 May 1978, FBIS, 18 May 1978, H–4.

17. Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 7 March 1978, FBIS, 15 March 1978, H–6.

18. For example, Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 11 July 1978, FBIS, 14 July 1978, E–16; Wuhan, Hubei radio, 12 July 1978, FBIS, 18 July 1978, H–7; Kunming, Yunnan radio, 31 July 1978, FBIS, 4 August 1978, J–3.

19. According to Article 46, in Issues and Studies, Taibei, (09 1979), p. 109Google Scholar;

20. Renmin ribao, Beijing, , 12 08 1979, p. 1Google Scholar;

21. Beijing Review, No. 16 (20 04 1979), p. 20Google Scholar;

22. Hefei, , radio, Anhui, 8 September 1979, Summary of World Broadcasts (SWB), FE/6220/BII/18, 15 09 1979Google Scholar;

23. In addition to the reports cited above, see also, Nanjing, , radio, Jiangsu, 3 September 1977, SWB, FE/5609/BII/12, 8 09 1977Google Scholar; Guangzhou, , radio, Guangdong, 13 May 1978, SWB, FE/5817/BII/10, 19 05 1978Google Scholar;

24. Education Ministry interview, CTX, June 1978; also, Renmin ribao, Beijing, , 17 05 1979, p. 1Google Scholar;

25. Renmin ribao, Beijing, 11 08 1979, p. 2Google Scholar;

26. According to: Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 17 August 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 18 08 1979Google Scholar; Guangming ribao, Beijing, 20 05 1979, p. 1Google Scholar and 16 August 1979, p. 2; Renmin fiaoyu (People's Education), Beijing, No. 7 (1979), pp. 44–46Google Scholar;

27. Renmin jiaoyu, No. 7 (1979), p. 45Google Scholar;

28. Guangming ribao, 20 May 1979, p. 1.

29. Middle School Number Seven, Guangzhou, CTSP, October 1978.

30. Interview file, HK–17, June 1979, p. 32.

31. Hangzhou, CTX, May 1979; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 30 April 1978, FBIS, 2 May 1978, G–2.

32. Renmin jiaoyu, No. 6 (1979), pp. 45–49Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 2 July 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 3 07 1979Google Scholar; Saywell, “Chinese education since Mao,” p. 4Google Scholar;

33. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 11 May 1978, FBIS, 17 May 1978, E–6; “Communiqué of the State Statistical Bureau of the People's Republic of China on the 1978 national economic plan,” Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 27 June 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 28 06 1979, pp. 29–30Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 16 September 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 17 09 1979Google Scholar;

34. “Communique of the State Statistical Bureau,” p. 29;Pepper, , “Interview,” p. 816Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 25 April 1978, in FBIS, 26 April 1978, E–7; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 10 January 1979, FBIS, 11 January 1979, E-15 and FBIS, 12 January 1979, E–16.

35. Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 23 September 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 24 09 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 10 January 1979, FBIS, 11 January t979, E–15.

36. From a photograph of the poster taken by John P. Bums in Yangso County, 2 July 1979.

37. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 17 May 1979 FBIS, 18 May 1979, L–2.

38. Xinhua-English, , 20 July 1978, SWB, FE/5875/BII/14, 27 07 1978Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 10 July 1979, SWB, FE/6167/BII/14, 14 07 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, , 7 July 1979, SWB, FE/6165/BII/5, 12 07 1979Google Scholar;

39. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 17 May 1979, FBIS, 18 May 1979, L–12.

40. Ta kung pao, Hong Kong, 8 07 1979Google Scholar; Renmin ribao, Beijing, 12 05 1978Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 20 July 1978, FBIS, 21 July 1978, E–16.

41. Xinhua-English, , 7 July 1979, SWB, FE/6165/BII/5, 12 07 1979Google Scholar;

42. Xinhua-English, Beijing, 16 May 1979, FBIS, 17 May 1979, L–17; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 29 August 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 30 08 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 13 June 1978, FBIS, 19 June 1978, E–17; Interview file, HK–19, May 1979, p. 8. In 1977 only four subjects were counted on each of the two examinations with a maximum possible score of 400 points: history-geography were counted together for a total of 100 points as were physics-chemistry.

43. Zhongguo daxue ruxue shiti tijie huibieiv shuxue, wuli, huaxue bufen, 1949–1978 (A Collection of Solutions to Questions on the Chinese University Entrance Examinations in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, 1949–1978), (Hong Kong: Xiandaihua chubanshe, 1978)Google Scholar;

44. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 17 May 1979, FBIS, 18 May 1979, L–3; Hefei, Anhui radio, 31 August 1978, FBIS, 5 September 1978, G–l.

45. Interview file, HK–6, September 1978, p. 17; Jinan, Shandong radio, 27 September 1978, FBIS, 2 October 1978, G–8.

46. Nanchang, Jiangxi radio, 6 September and 16 August 1978, FBIS, 8 September and 18 August 1978, respectively; Interview file, HK–6, September 1978, p. 17; Fuzhou, Fujian radio, 19 October 1978, JPRS/72188/PRC/465, 6 November 1978, p. 36.

47. Renmin ribao, 26 April 1978, p. 1.

48. Ibid. 17 November 1978, p. 1 and 2 January 1979, p. 1.

49. Ibid. 29 January 1979, p. 1.

50. Ibid. 30 January 1979, p. 2.

51. Xinhua-Chinese, , 25 January 1979, SWB, FE/6031/BII/7, 1 02 1979Google Scholar; Renmin ribao, 15 February 1979, p. 3.

52. Renmin ribao, 18 February and 26 April 1978; Wen hui poo, Hong Kong, 27 03 1978Google Scholar;

53. Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 20 May 1978, FBIS, 24 May 1978, H–3.

54. Guangming ribao, 6 September 1979, p. 1.

55. Interview file, HK–19, May 1979, p. 10.

56. Renmin ribao, 12 May 1978, p. 3.

57. Chengdu, , radio, Sichuan, 26 October 1978, SWB, FE/5962/BH/15, 7 11 1978Google Scholar; Jinan, , radio, Shandong, 16 October 1978, SWB, FE/5959/ Bn/16, 3 11 1978Google Scholar;

58. Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 24 April 1979, from Geronimo Tagatac's trip notes. Present qualifications for Youth League membership cannot be verified. The Cultural Revolution youth organizations, the Little Red Guards for younger students and the Red Guards for teenagers, were both mass organizations and both have been abolished. The pre-Cultural Revolution Young Pioneer organization has been re-established at the primary school level and is also a mass organization. The Youth League is not, but before 1966 admission requirements varied depending on the political climate. If the same rules now apply, access to this organization should be relatively unrestricted.

59. Xinhua–Chinese, Beijing, 13 June 1978, FBIS, 19 June 1978, E–18; Shenyang, , radio, Iiaoning, 25 June 1978, SWB, FE/5869/BII/7, 20 07 1978Google Scholar;

60. Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 27 September 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 28 09 1979Google Scholar; Guangdong Province has tried to simplify this process and has not restored the game plan approach in its entirety. Both in 1978 and 1979 Guangdong candidates listed their preferences only after they had taken the written examinations, received their scores, and the minimum passing grades had been announced. This at least eliminates the gamble between key and ordinary schools since the candidates already know whether they have scored high enough for admission to the former or must confine their preferences to the latter. (Interview file, HK–6, September 1979, p. 27.)

61. Renmin ribao, 20 January 1978, p. 2; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 11 Febbruary 1978, FBIS, 14 February 1978, E–15; Jinan, Shandong radio, 27 September 1978, FBIS, 2 October 1978, G–8; Guangzhou, Guangdong radio 10 March 1978, FBIS, 10 March 1978, H–5.

62. Guangming ribao, 7 March 1978; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 13 June 1978, FBIS, 15 June 1978, E–5; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 16 May 1979, FBIS, 17 May 1979, L–17.

63. Guangming ribao, 23 and 25 January 1978; Wen hui poo, Hong Kong, 2 April 1978; Xinhua-English, 26 January 1978, FBIS, 26 January 1978, E–6;Xinhua-English, , 17 March 1979, SWB, FE/6080/BII/10, 30 03 1979Google Scholar;

64. Guangzhou, CTSP, October 1978; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 24 May 1978, FBIS, 25 May 1978, E–l; Jinan, Shandong radio, 16 October 1978, JPRS/72240/ PRC/467, 15 November 1978, p. 36; Central Institute of Nationalities, Beijing, CTX, 2 June 1978.

65. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 11 May 1978, FBIS, 17 May 1978, E–6.

66. Kerr, Clark et al. , Observations on the Relations Between Education and Work in the People's Republic of China: Report of a Study Group, 25 April–15 05 1978 (Berkeley, California: the Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education), p. 95Google Scholar;

67. Jinan, Shandong radio, 16 October 1978; Chengdu, , radio, Sichuan, 26 October 1978, SWB, FE/5962/BU/15, 7 11 1978Google Scholar;

68. Guangming ribao, 23 January 1978 and Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 1 03 1978Google Scholar; FBIS, 1 March 1978, E–19.

69. Renmin ribao, 2 March 1978, FBIS, 13 March 1978, E–10; Saywell, , “Chinese education since Mao,” p. 8Google Scholar;

70. Xinhua-Chinese, , 7 February 1979, SWB, FE/6043/BII/14, 15 02 1979Google Scholar;

71. Interview file, HK–8, September 1977, pp. 4, 11.

72. According to foreign teachers and students in China; also, Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 20 March 1978, FBIS, 24 March 1978, H–4; Wen hui pao, Hong Kong, 2 04 1978Google Scholar;

73. Xinhua-English, Beijing, 14 September 1978, JPRS/71908/PRC/457, 21: September 1978, p. 24; also, Ta kung pao, Hong Kong, 17 March, 20 March, 14 April, 13 May, 13 July, 6 08 1978Google Scholar;

74. radio, Beijing, 2 March 1978, SWB, FE/5762/BII/3, 13 03 1978Google Scholar; Wen hui poo, Hong Kong, 19 03 1978Google Scholar;

75. Guangming ribao, 14 March 1978, p. 1; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 26 March 1978, FBIS, 28 March 1978, K–3; Lanzhou, Gansu radio, 28 March 1978, FBIS, 29 March 1978, M–2; Urumqi, Xinjiang radio, 17 March 1978, FBIS, 6 April 1978, M–4.

76. Beijing Review, No. 3 (19 01 1979), p. 31Google Scholar; Shanghai, CTX, Winter 1978–79; Renmin ribao, 11 November 1978, p. 2; Beijing radio, 29 November 1978, FBIS, 1 December 1978, K–2.: 77. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 25 November 1978, FBIS, 27 November 1978,; K–5; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 29 November 1978, FBIS, 1 December 1978, K–5; Beijing radio, 4 February 1979, FBIS, 15 February 1979, K–2.

78. Renmin ribao, 11 November 1978, p. 2; Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 13 June 1978, FBIS, 19 June 1978, E–16.

79. Changsha, , radio, Hunan, 1 December 1978, SWB, FE/5988/BII/12, 7 12 1978Google Scholar; Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 9 December 1978, FBIS, 15 December 1978, H–10; Hangzhou, , radio, Zhejiang, 6 January 1979, SWB, FE/6021/BII/17, 20 01 1979Google Scholar;

80. radio, Shanghai, 7 September 1979, SWB, FE/6220/BII/19, 15 09, 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 26 August 1979, SWB, FE/6210/BII/11, 4 09 1979Google Scholar;

81. Guangxi Medical College, Nanning, July 1978, from Marc Blecher's trip notes; also those of Kathleen McDermott, Shanghai, May 1978.

82. Shanghai radio, 11 August 1978, JPRS/71827/PRC/454, 7 September 1978, p. 28.

83. Beijing University and Nanjing Teachers Training College, CTX, June 1978.

84. Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 20 March 1978, FBIS, 24 March 1978, H–4, and Ta kung pao, Hong Kong, 21 03 1978Google Scholar;

85. Xinhua-Chinese, , 24 July 1978, SWB, FE/5879/BII/14, 1 08 1978Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, , 4 April 1979, SWB, FE/6087/BII/14, 7 04 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 9 July 1979, SWB, FE/6177/BII/15, 26 07 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 1 September 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 3 09 1979Google Scholar;

86. Xinhua-English, Beijing, 19 July 1978, FBIS, 20 July 1978, E–15.

87. Interview file, HK–19, May 1979, p. 11.

88. Nanchang, , radio, Jiangxi, 16 September 1979, SWB, FE/6232/BII/14, 26 09 1979Google Scholar;

89. Shenyang, Liaoning radio, 26 March 1978, FBIS, 31 March 1978, L–7; Harbin, , radio, Heilongjiang, 3 March 1979, SWB, FE/6069/BII/13, 17 03 1979Google Scholar; Hongkong Standard, 29 July 1979.

90. Deng Xiaoping's speech to the National Science Conference, 18 March 1978, is usually cited as the authority on this re-definition; translated in Peking Review, No. 12 (24 03 1978)Google Scholar;

91. Guangming ribao, 21 May 1979, p. 3.

92. For example, ibid. 27 August 1978, p. 2.

93. For references to this problem, see Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 15 March 1978, FB1S, 17 March 1978, E–l; Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 27 March 1978, FBIS, 29 March 1978, H–l; Changchun, Jilin radio, 31 March and 7 April 1978, FBIS, 5 April and 12 April 1978, respectively.

94. Renmin ribao, 28 December 1977, p. 3; Ta kung pao, Hong Kong, 26 November and 30 12 1977Google Scholar; also on these organizational changes, Pepper, , ”Education and revolution,” pp. 884–85Google Scholar.

95. radio, Shanghai, 4 April 1979, SWB, FE/6102/BII/13, 27 April 1979Google Scholar;

96. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 12 February 1978, FBIS, 14 February 1978, E–13.

97. Education Ministry interview, CTX, June 1978.

98. Beijing Review, No. 32 (10 08 1979), p. 8Google Scholar;

99. Changsha, , radio, Hunan, 20 August 1979, SWB, FE/6207/BII/18, 31 08 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, , 15 August 1978, SWB, FE/5894/BII/15, 18 08 1978Google Scholar;

100. Guangming ribao, 16 August 1979, p. 2.

101. Ibid. 25 January 1978, p. 1; also, 13 January 1978, p. 1. 102. Guangzhou, Guangdong radio, 13 March 1978, FBIS, 14 March 1978, H–10.

103. Ta kung pao, Hong Kong, 30 01 1978Google Scholar;

104. Middle School Number Seven, Guangzhou, CTSP, October 1978; Guangzhou, , radio, Guangdong, 22 June 1978, SWB, FE/5852/BII/15, 30 06 1978Google Scholar;

105. Interview file, HK–6, July 1979, p. 26; also, Lanzhou, Gansu radio, 6 July 1978, FBIS, 10 July 1978, M–1.

106. For example, Xinhua-English, Beijing, 1 May 1978, FBIS, 2 May 1978, K–1.

107. Huhehot, Inner Mongolia radio, 17 September 1978, FBIS, 22 September 1978, K–6.

108. Ta kung pao, Hong Kong, 30 January and 8 09 1978Google Scholar; Interview file, HK–25, October 1979, p. 10.

109. Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 1 September 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 3 09 1979Google Scholar;

110. Xinhua-English, , 3 February 1978, SWB, FE/5739/BII/8, 14 02 1978Google Scholar;

111. Huashan commune primary school, Hua County, Guangdong, March 1978, from Rubie Watson's trip notes.

112. Beijing, CTSP, October 1978; Renmin ribao, 23 April 1978, p. 2; Guangming ribao, 6 September 1979, p. 1.

113. Supra, n. 31.

114. Prescott-Decie, Helen, “Shanghai School,” Monsoon, Hong Kong (06–07 1978), p. 20Google Scholar;

115. Pepper, , “Interview,” pp. 820–21Google Scholar;

116. Also, Shanghai radio, 25 June 1978, FBIS, 28 July 1978, G–7.

117. Middle School Number Seven, Guangzhou, CTSP, October 1978; Guangming ribao, 13 January 1978, p. 1; see also, Guangzhou, , radio, Guangdong, 22 June 1978, SWB, FE/5852/BJJ/15, 30 06 1978Google Scholar;

118. Beijing, CTSP, October 1978; Nanjing education officials interview, CTX, April 1978.

119. Guangming ribao, 6 September 1979, p. 1.

120. Ibid. 13 January 1978, p. 1.

121. Municipal educators interview, Jinan, Shandong, August 1978, from Susan Keyes' trip notes.

122. Shanghai radio, 25 June 1978, FBIS, 28 July 1978, G–7; Guangzhou, , radio, Guangdong, 22 June 1978, SWB, FE/5852/BII/16, 30 06 1978Google Scholar; Changchun, , radio, Jilin, 12 June 1979, SWB, FE/6147/BII/12, 21 06 1979Google Scholar;

123. Shanghai educators interview, CTX, June 1978.

124. According to the circular accompanying the “Draft programme for the tentative implementation of the full-day 10-year primary and middle school teaching system,” Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 12 February 1978, FBIS, 14 February 1978, E–13.

125. Shanghai radio, 25 June 1978, FBIS, 28 July 1978, G–7; Middle School Number Seven, Guangzhou, CTSP, October 1978.

126. Guangzhou, CTSP, October 1978. 127. Xinhua-English, Beijing, 19 July 1978, FBIS, 20 July 1978, E–15.

128. Ta kung poo, Hong Kong, 20 07 1978Google Scholar;

129. Guangzhou, CTSP, October 1978; interview file, HK–6, September 1979, p. 28.

130. Guangzhou, , radio, Guangdong, 29 July 1978, SWB, FE/5883/BJJ/7, 5 08 1978Google Scholar; interview files HK–6, July 1979, p. 23, and HK–25, June 1979, p. 9.

131. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 17 May 1979, FBIS, 18 May 1979, L–13.

132. Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 17 August 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 18 08 1979Google Scholar; also, Xinhua-English, Beijing, 23 August 1978, FBIS, 23 August 1978, G–5.

133. Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 17 September 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 18 08 1979Google Scholar;

134. Guangming ribao, 16 August 1979, p. 2.

135. These efforts were anticipated by a national conference on upgrading the quality of primary and secondary teaching; see Guangtning ribao, 24 November 1977, p. 1.

136. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 30 December 1978, FBIS, 9 January 1979, E–19. 137. Pepper, “Interview,” p. 816; Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 27 June 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 28 06 1979, p. 30Google Scholar;

138. Guangming ribao, 5 April 1978, p. 1.

139. Nanfang ribao, Guangzhou, 16 07 1979Google Scholar;

140. Guangming ribao, 14 August 1979, p. 1.

141. Wen hui bao, Shanghai, 6 October 1979, p. 3, and Xinhua-English, , Zhengzhou, , 6 October 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 8 10 1979Google Scholar;

142. A provincial Heilongjiang report still referred to Harbin's “July 21st” workers' colleges, but three Xinhua versions of the same report called them only “factory-run colleges” and “schools of higher education” (Harbin, , radio, Heilongjiang, 8 August 1979, SWB, FE/6197/BII/15, 18 10 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, , 28 August 1979, SWB, FE/6207/BII/18, 31 10 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, Zhengzhou, 6 October 1979 and Wen hui bao, Shanghai, , 6 10 1979, p. 3)Google Scholar;

143. Xinhua-English, , 7 April 1979, SWB, FE/6091/BII/15, 12 04 1979Google Scholar; also, Xinhua-English, , 4 April 1979, SWB, FE/6087/BII/14, 7 04 1979Google Scholar; The 1979 State Statistical Bureau figures indicated over 68 million students were receiving spare-time primary and secondary training but it is unclear who and where they are and especially whether the figure refers only to adults or includes young people who have been unsuccessful in gaining admission to regular schools.

144. Xinhua-English, , 6 September 1979, SWB, FE/6220/BII/19, 15 09 1979Google Scholar;

145. These colleges should not be confused with the regular agricultural colleges (nungye yuanxiao) for young people, admission to which is governed by the unified college entrance examinations. Nor should the May 7th colleges be confused with the “agricultural middle school” which is part of the re-emerging two-track educational system for secondary school students in the countryside-the name now being used to distinguish these schools from the regular full-day academic curriculum schools.

146. Guangming ribao, 6 October 1979, p. 2.

147. Bernstein, Thomas P., Up to the Mountains and Down to the Villages: the Transfer of Youth from Urban to Rural China (New Haven and London: Yale, 1977), pp. 39, 279Google Scholar;

148. Xinhua-English, 14 December 1978, FBIS, 15 December 1978, E–5; Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 24 January 1978, FBIS, 26 January 1978, E–2; Renmin ribao, 10 February 1979, p. 1.

149. Xinhua-English, Beijing, 14 December 1978, FBIS, 15 December 1978, E–5.

150. Xinhua-Chinese, , 4 December 1978, SWB, FE/5989/BII/9, 8 12 1978Google Scholar; also, Kunming, Yunnan radio, 7 December 1978, FBIS, 11 December 1978, J–4.

151. Zhongguo qingnian boo, Beijing, 24 July 1979, p. 1; Guangming ribao, 6 September 1979, p. 1; Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 8 September 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 10 09 1979Google Scholar; The examinations conflict in principle with the “inheritance” method of job allocation also now being promoted – together with the early retirement of parents – as one means of increasing the job supply. According to this method, when a worker or employee retires, one of his or her children can be given a job in the parent's work unit. In Tianjin, 110,000 young people whose parents retired during the first half of 1979, were assigned jobs in this way. The practice was criticized during the Cultural Revolution and fell into disfavour, although there were many reported instances of its re-appearance by the mid–1970s. How the obvious conflict of principle between the inheritance method and the competitive examinations is being resolved in practice is unclear since reports indicate that both are now being used in some localities to recruit new workers. (Xinhua-English, , Tianjin, , 3 July 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 4 07 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-English, Beijing, 14 June 1979, FBIS, 15 June 1979, R–l.)

152. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 14 December 1978, FBIS, 15 December 1978, E–l.

153. Xinhua-English, Beijing, 14 December 1978, FBIS, 15 December 1978, E–4.

154. Zhongguo qingnian boo, Beijing, 23 11Google Scholar; FBIS, 11 December 1978, E–16; also, FBIS, 28 November 1978, E–27.

155. Shanghai radio, 4 January 1979, FBIS, 11 January 1979, G–2. 156. Hangzhou, Zhejiang radio, 30 January 1979, FBIS, 2 February 1979, G–3; Guiyang, Guizhou radio, 2 March 1979, FBIS, 6 March 1979, J–l.

157. Xi'an, Shaanxi radio, 8 February 1979, FBIS, 14 February 1979, M–1; Taiyuan, Shanxi radio, 8 January 1979, FBIS, 12 January 1979, K–6.

158. Hefei, Anhui radio, 26 March 1979, FBIS, 3 April 1979, 0–1. / 159. Nanchang, Jiangxi radio, 29 December 1978, FBIS, 2 January 1979, G–l. 160. radio, Shanghai, 21 January 1979, SWB, FE/6032/BII/18, 1 February 1979Google Scholar; radio, Shanghai, 25 January 1979, SWB, FE/6037/BII/14, 8 02 1979Google Scholar; Shanghai radio, 10 December 1978, FBIS, 12 December 1978, G–4; Shanghai radio, 13 December 1978, FBIS, 15 December 1978, G–1.

161. Jiefang ribao, Shanghai, 11 February 1979 and Shanghai radio, 11 February 1979, both in FBIS, 12 February 1979, G–l, 4.

162. Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 12 February 1979, FBIS, 13 February 1979, G–4; Hangzhou, Zhejiang radio, 12 February 1979, FBIS, 12 February 1979, G–l.

163. Renmin ribao, 10 February 1979, p. 1, and Xinhua-Chinese, Beijing, 10 February 1979, both in FBIS, 12 February 1979.

164. radio, Shanghai, 13 July 1979, SWB, FE/6171/BII/8, 19 07 1979Google Scholar;

165. Shenyang, Liaoning radio, 12 March 1979, FBIS, 15 March 1979, L–4.

166. Harbin, Heilongjiang radio, 4 April 1979, SWB, FE/6090/BII/7, 11 April 1979.

167. Shenyang, , radio, Liaoning, 10 July 1979, SWB, FE/6171/BH/8, 19 07 1979Google Scholar;

168. For example, radio, Tianjin, 23 April 1979, SWB, JE/6108/Bn/16, 4 05 1979Google Scholar; Changsha, , radio, Hunan, 14 June 1979, SWB, FE/6145/BII/10, 19 06 1979Google Scholar; Kunming, , radio, Yunnan, 2 July 1979, SWB, FE/6161/BII/8, 7 07 1979Google Scholar;

169. According to Hu Yaobang at a meeting with educated youth on 26 August 1979; Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 29 August 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 30 08 1979Google Scholar;

170. Xinhua reported that “concerned departments” estimate the natural growth in the urban labour force will average more than three million people per year between 1980–85 (Xinhua-Chinese, , 5 August 1979, SWB, FE/6191/BII/12, 11 08 1979)Google Scholar;

171. From Li Xiannian's report to a central work conference in April, as received from an unattributed source and published in Ming Pao, Hong Kong, 14 and 15 06 1979Google Scholar; The same 20 million figure also appeared in a locally-written article inTa Kung Pao Weekly (English), Hong Kong, 2 08 1979Google Scholar;

172. Renmin ribao, 14 July 1979, p. 2; Fuzhou, Fujian radio, 26 July 1979, and Guangzhou, , radio, Guangdong, 26 July 1979, both in SWB, FE/6187/BII/4, 7 08 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 5 August 1979, SWB, FE/6191/BII/12, 11 08 1979Google Scholar;

173. Gongren ribao, Beijing, 10 06 1979, p. 1Google Scholar; Renmin ribao, 4 August 1979, p. 1; radio, Beijing, 28 July 1979, SWB, FE/6187/BII/1, 7 08 1979Google Scholar;

174. radio, Beijing, 28 July 1979, SWB, FE/6187/BII/1, 7 08 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 11 August 1979, SWB, FE/6195/BII/3, 16 08 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 23 July 1979, SWB, FE/6187/BII/ 3, 7 08 1979Google Scholar;

175. Changchun, , radio, Jilin, 3 July 1979, SWB, FE/6161/BII/8, 7 07 1979Google Scholar; Shenyang, , radio, liaoning, 26 July 1979, SWB, FE/6187/BII/3, 7 08 1979Google Scholar;

176. Hangzhou, , radio, Zhejiang, 13 July 1979, SWB, FE/6170/BII/9, 18 07 1979Google Scholar;

177. Jiefang ribao, Shanghai, , 14 07 1979Google Scholar; SWB, FE/6170/BII/7, 18 July 1979; Xinhua-Chinese, , 27 July 1979, SWB, FE/6187/BJJ/3, 7 08 1979Google Scholar; Agence France-Presse, Beijing, 26 July 1979, FBIS, 27 July 1979, O–2.

178. Guangzhou, CTX, June 1979; radio, Tianjin, 2 June 1979, SWB, FE/6143/ Bn/3, 16 06 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua hinese, Beijing, 12 February 1979, FBIS, 14 February 1979, G–8; Changsha, , radio, Hunan, 16 September 1979, SWB, FE/6226/ BII/7, 22 09 1979Google Scholar; Hefei, , radio, Anhui, 24 May 1979, SWB, FE/6129/ BII/13,31 05 1979Google Scholar;

179. Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 17 August 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 18 08 1979Google Scholar;

180. For example, Hefei, , radio, Anhui, 5 June 1978, SWB, FE/5834/BII/12, 9 06 1978Google Scholar;

181. Hefei, , radio, Anhui, 22 June 1978, SWB, FE/5852/BII/11, 30 06 1978Google Scholar; Nanjing, , radio, Jiangsu, 31 May 1978, SWB, FE/5833/BII/14, 8 06 1978Google Scholar; Guangzhou, , radio, Guangdong, 23 June 1978, SWB, FE/5852/BII/14, 30 06 1978Google Scholar; Harbin, , radio, Heilongjiang, 24 June 1978, SWB, FE/5853/BII/3, 1 07 1978Google Scholar; Changchun, , radio, Jilin, 15 July 1978, SWB, FE/5873/BII/4, 25 07 1978Google Scholar;

182. For example, Guangming ribao, 20 October 1978 and 1 June 1979; Renmin ribao, 16 July 1979.

183. Hefei, , radio, Anhui, 7 June 1978, SWB, FE/5843/BII/15, 20 06 1978Google Scholar; Guangzhou radio, 17 January 1979, FBIS, 19 January 1979, H–2; Nanchang, , radio, Jiangxi, 14 December 1978, SWB, FE/6001/BH/15, 22 12 1978Google Scholar;

184. For example, Renmin ribao, 10 February 1979, p. 4; Changsha, , radio, Hunan, 30 December 1978 and 8 May 1979, in SWB, FE/6013/BII/11, 11 01 1979Google Scholar and FE/6119/BII/10, 18 May 1979, respectively.

185. Changchun, , Jilin radio, 12 March 1979 and 12 June 1979, in SWB, FE/6080/BII/11, 30 03 1979Google Scholar and FE/6147/BII/12, 21 June 1979.

186. Reninin jiaoyu, Beijing, No. 6 (1979), pp. 3–8Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 28 May 1979, SWB, FE/6131/BII/5, 2 06 1979Google Scholar; Xinhua-Chinese, , 24 May 1979, SWB, FE/6128/BII/10, 30 05 1979Google Scholar;

187. For example, Xinhua-English, , Beijing, , 30 June 1979, Bulletin, Hong Kong, 2 07 1979Google Scholar;

188. Renmin ribao, 12 August 1979, p. 1.

189. Guangming ribao, 24 July 1979, p. 1; also, Changsha, Hunan radio, 29 May 1979, FBIS, 31 May 1979, P–4; Shenyang, , radio, Liaoning, 21 May 1979, SWB, FE/6126/BII/8, 26 05 1979Google Scholar;