¹ Most writers speak of five or six campaigns against the Kiangsi Communists; however, using the word campaign in its broader meaning (i.e., “a connected series of military operations forming a distinct stage in a war”), it would seem more accurate to divide the war against the Central Soviet region into two campaigns, from December 1930 to September 1931 and from April 1933 to November 1934.Google Scholar

² In all probability this strategy was devised by Chiang's German advisers, Generals von Seeckt and von Falkenhausen. See Liu, F. F., A Military History of Modern China, 1924–1949 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1956), pp. 97–98.Google Scholar

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⁴ Chiang, of course, gained control of Fukien after the abortive Fukien Rebellion. See below.Google Scholar

⁵ Snow, Edgar, Random Notes on Red China, 1936–1945 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957), p. 28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷ Mao, Tse-tung, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung (London: Lawrence & Wishart Ltd., 1954), Vol. I, p. 205.Google Scholar

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²⁴ Ibid. p. 249.

²⁵ Ibid. pp. 249–251. For an English reprint of this statement, see Inprecor, XIV, No. 11, 02 23, 1934, pp. 300–301.Google Scholar

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²⁷ Ibid. p. 250.

²⁸ Inprecor, XIII, No. 50, 11 17, 1933, p. 1124.Google Scholar

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³¹ Snow, , Red Star, op. cit., p. 187.Google Scholar

³² Wales, Nym, and Kim, San, Song of Ariran: The Life Story of a Korean Rebel (New York: John Day Co., 1941), opposite page 111.Google Scholar

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³⁸ See the New York Times, 08 16, 1934Google Scholar; Survey of International Affairs, 1934Google Scholar, p. 635; China Critic, 10 18, 1934Google Scholar, p. 1019 for the first part of the 7th Army mission and China Today, 02, 1935Google Scholar, p. 93; Ibid. August 1935, p. 210; Hua, Ying-shen, Chung-kuo Kung-ch'an-tang Lieh-shih Chuan (Martyrs of the Chinese Communist Party) (Hong Kong: Hsin-min chu, 1949), p. 97 for the second part of the 7th Army mission.Google Scholar

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⁴¹ Hua, op. cit., p. 98.Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ Bosshardt, Rudolf A., The Restraining Hand: Captivity for Christ in China (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1936), p. 19.Google Scholar

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⁴⁸ Ibid. p. 31.

⁴⁹ Ibid. p. 38.

⁵⁰ Hsiao K'eh says they attacked Yungsun at this time (early November), see Wales, Red Dust, op. cit., p. 139, when the First Front Red Army reached Jucheng and Yanfa, see below. In addition, see the North China Herald, 01 9, 1935, p. 41.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Lien, op. cit., p. 3.Google Scholar Hsu Meng-ch'iu states that the first mention of any withdrawal from Kiangsi was an article by Lo, Fu which appeared in Red China on 10 1, 1934.Google Scholar See Wales, , Red Dust, op. cit., p. 64.Google Scholar

⁵² Snow, , Red Star, op. cit.Google Scholar, p. 194. Apparently, Mao had been in Yutu since September, suffering from malaria. See Fu, Lien-chang, “Mao Chu-hsi Tsai Yu-tu” (“Chairman Mao at Yutu”), Hung Ch'i P'iao-p'iao, 01 1959, pp. 6–7.Google Scholar

⁵³ Wang, Ming, “The Struggle of the Chinese Red Army Against Chiang Kai-shek's Sixth Drive,” Communist International, XII, No. 1, 01 5, 1935, p. 16.Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ This figure of 90,000 is taken from Snow, Random Notes, op. cit., p. 100, who obtained his information from Chou En-lai during a conversation with the latter on 09 26, 1936.Google ScholarNym, Wales, Inside Red China (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1939)Google Scholar, p. 58 also uses this figure of 90,000. Smedley, op. cit., p. 309, says that “one hundred thousand men and thirty-five women were selected to go on the Long March.” Hsu, Meng-ch'iu, Wales, , Red Dust, op. cit.Google Scholar, p. 3 says that between 120–130 thousand began the Long March. Lien Ch'en, op. cit., p. 3, says there were between 130–140 thousand when they began the evacuation. In the New York Times (11 19, 1934), p. 14Google Scholar, the Communist strength was estimated to be about 50,000 and Ibid. (December 13, 1934), 60,000, but by the time these reports were printed the Reds were half-way through Hunan and probably divided into two main columns (see below). The figures given by Hsu and Lien seem rather high. It is possible that they counted as part of the Long March forces which were used only to help break the blockade. Chou En-lai and Chu Teh, as Communist leaders, would seem to be the best informed sources on the size of the Army.

⁶¹ Wales, , Red Dust, op. cit., p. 65.Google Scholar

⁶² Lien, op. cit., p. 4. See also Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, Vol. III (The Far East), p. 334.Google Scholar

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⁶⁴ Ibid. p. 4.

⁶⁵ Ibid. pp. 6 and 8.

⁶⁶ Wales, Red Dust, op. cit., p. 126.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Lien, op. cit., pp. 4–5.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ New York Times, 11 9, 1934.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Lien, op. cit., p. 6.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Ibid. p. 5.

⁷¹ Ibid. p. 5. See also the New York Times, 12 13, 1934, where it was reported that Chiang Kai-shek assailed Pai Ch'ung-hsi for permitting the Reds to escape.Google Scholar

⁷² Lien, op. cit., pp. 14–15.Google Scholar

⁷³ Ibid. p. 15.

⁷⁴ Ibid. p. 15.

⁷⁵ Wales, , Red Dust, op. cit.Google Scholar, p. 66. See also North China Herald, 01 23, 1935, p. 127.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Lien, op. cit., p. 20.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ibid. p. 2.

⁷⁸ Ibid. p. 22.

⁷⁹ This view of the Long March as an anti-Japanese crusade is especially popular in present-day China. For example, in a play by Chen Chi-tung (originally called “Across Mountains and Rivers”) which appeared in Chinese Literature, No. 2, 1956, translated as “The Long March,” the author develops this theme. It is interesting to note that the action begins after the Communist leaders decided to traverse northern Yunnan and nothing is said about the evacuation of Kiangsi nor the defeat on the Szechuan border.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Whang, Paul K., “Szechuan—Hotbed of Civil Wars,” China Weekly Review, 10 22, 1932, p. 344.Google Scholar

⁸¹ North China Herald, 02 8, 1933.Google Scholar

⁸² Meng, C. Y. W., “Whither Szechuan?,” China Weekly Review, 10 20, 1934, p. 262. See also the comments of Hsu Hsiang-ch'ien in Wales, Red Dust, op. cit., pp. 158–159.Google Scholar

⁸³ Meng, op. cit., p. 262.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Meng, C. Y. W., “The Crushing Tax Burden of the Chinese Farmers,” China Weekly Review, 06 2, 1934.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Ibid. p. 24.

⁸⁶ Wales, , Inside Red China, op. cit., p. 59.Google Scholar

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⁸⁸ Wales, , Red Dust, op. cit., p. 158.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Ibid. pp. 158–159.

⁹⁰ China Weekly Review, 01 12, 1935, p. 215.Google Scholar

⁹¹ Accounts of the movements of Ho Lung can be found in the issues of the China Critic published during this period.Google Scholar

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⁹³ In the north were Yang Hu-ch'eng (Shensi) and Ma Hung-Kwei (Kansu), in the south, Wang Chia-lieh (Kweichow) and Lung Yun (Yunnan). Not one of these men had any strong tie with Chiang Kai-shek, nor were they interested in affairs outside the borders of their respective provinces. In the west—the wilds of Hsikang; in the east Szechuan touches borders with Hupeh and Hunan. Though Ho Ch'ien (Hunan) tended to co-operate with Nanking, it is doubtful whether he would have sent any of his troops on an expedition to Szechuan. It is true that Chiang gained a good deal of influence in Kweichow, however, this was not realised until middle February 1935 when Hsueh Yueh was appointed Pacification Commissioner of the province. See below.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Cressey, George B., The Land of the 500 Million (New York, Toronto, and London: McGraw-Hill, 1955), p. 178.Google Scholar

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⁹⁶ Spencer, Joseph E., “Salt in China,” Geographical Review, 07 1935.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁰⁴ North China Herald, 11 14, 1934, p. 247.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁷ China Weekly Review, 01 19, 1935, p. 251.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁹ North China Herald, 01 12, 1935Google Scholar, p. 16 and Ibid. February 20, 1935, p. 286.

¹¹⁰ Ibid.March 20, 1935, p. 449Google Scholar and Fred, M., “At the Front with the Chinese Red Army,” Communist International, XII, No. 14, 07 20, 1935, p. 872.Google Scholar

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¹¹³ Lien, op. cit., p. 26. See also Lin, Chi-ts'ai, “Chien-Ch'uan-fei Fen-wei Mieh-chih Yuan-yin” (Reasons Why the Bandits in Kweichow and Szechuan Are Not Yet Exterminated), Kuo-Wen Weekly, 03 25, 1935, p. 1.Google Scholar

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¹²⁸ See Stories of the Long March (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1958)Google Scholar and Chen, Chang-feng, “On the Long March with Chairman Mao,” Peking Review, 07 29, 1958, and August 5, 1958.Google Scholar

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¹³⁴ The poverty of Shensi has been discussed already (see above). For a discussion of the poverty of the Szechuan-Hsikang region, see Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, Vol III (The Far East), 1935, pp. 306–307.Google Scholar

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