^1. Deng Xiaoping wenxuan (Collected Works of Deng Xiaoping)(Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1983), pp. 1–3.Google Scholar

^2. Xinhua (New China News Agency) (Beijing), 5 July 1985.Google Scholar

^3. See e.g. Xinhua, 13 December 1994; Zhongguo tongxunshe (China News)(Hong Kong) 1 January 1995, in U.S. National Technical Information Service, Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Vol. I: China(hereafter, FBIS-CHI), 24 January 1995, pp. 52–53.Google Scholar

^4. Assuming that these individuals were not so elderly as to be unable to perform their functions, this move would be desirable: one would not necessarily want the retirement age for a professor to be the same as that of an active-duty military officer.

^5. Translated in FBIS-CHI, 8 September 1988, pp. 37^11.

^6. Author's interview with Major Kenneth Allen, United States Air Force (retired), 13 March 1995. Major Allen served as Assistant Air Force Attache in Beijing at the time of the demonstrations. The author wishes to thank not only Major Allen but a large number of Western military, government and intelligence officials and two PLA officers who gave generously of their time and knowledge, all of them on condition that they not be identified by name. She is also greatly indebted to her discussants, Lieutenant Colonel Dennis Blasko and Colonel John Corbett, United States Army, and the other participants of the conference from which this volume is drawn, for their many valuable suggestions.

^7. Xinhua, 13 May 1994, trans, in FBIS-CHI, 17 May 1994, pp. 35–40.Google Scholar

^8. Gilley, Bruce, “Air Force Chiefs retirement goes unreported,” Eastern Express(Hong Kong), 29 November 1994, p.8.Google Scholar

^9. Lam, Willy Wo-lap, “Chengdu, Jinan Military Region leaders retire,” South China Morning Post,12 December 1994, p. 10.Google Scholar

^10. He Guangming, “Jiefang zhongcheng qingnian junguan,” (“Younger and mid-level PLA officers”), Ziyou luntan (Freedom Forum)Paris, No. 2 (1991), p. 7. He Guangming is described as an officer formerly attached to the headquarters department of the PLA's General Staff Department. The author has heard other PLA officers complain about the slowness of promotions. According to American officers, perception does not equal reality: promotions in the PLA actually come faster than in the U.S. military. On average, it takes 19 years, including time spent at a military academy, to become a colonel in the PLA, against 22 in the United States, excludingtraining time. However, the perception of tardy promotions has a reality of its own that affects PLA morale and the complaint must therefore be taken seriously.

^11. See Henley, Lonnie D., “Officer education in the Chinese PLA,” Problems of Communism,May-June 1987, pp. 55–71, for a fuller discussion of the military educational system.Google Scholar

^12. A complete list of these academies can be found in United States Defense Liaison Office, Hong Kong, (hereafter, USDLO), Directory of PRC Military Personalities(Hong Kong, n.p., 1994), pp. 193–210.

^13. There are exceptions. China's Korean minority has a highereducational level than the majority Han; that of the Manchu minority is the same as that of the Han.

^14. “Tibetans comprise ten per cent of Tibet military officers,” China Daily(Beijing), 5 October 1989, p. 3.

^15. See Henley, “Officer education,” p. 63.Google Scholar

^16. Xinhua, 21 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 23 January 1995, p. 36.Google Scholar

^17. Xinhua, 7 January 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 7 January 1994, p. 29.Google Scholar

^18. This is not necessarily so in all cases, since a certain percentage of those who go abroad may dislike what and whom they see, and return with an enhanced sense of the superiority of Chinese ways. According to a student of Kuomintang politics, this was precisely Chiang Kai-shek's experience, providing a sharp contrast with that of his multi-cultural mentor Sun Yat-sen. See deBary William Theodore(ed.), Sources of Chinese Tradition(New York: Columbia University Press, 1960) pp. 796–797. However, most officers are apt to derive positive impressions from their visits.

^19. Yang Chunchang, Deng Xiaoping xinshiqi jianjun sixiang yanjiu (Research on Deng Xiaoping's Thoughts on Building the Military in the New Era)(Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1989), p. 163.

^20. Quoted in Agence France Presse (AFP), 24 October 1988, in FBIS-CHI, 24 October 1988, p. 30.

^21. Xinhua, 29 July 1993, in FBIS-CHI, 4 August 1993, p. 22.Google Scholar

^22. Xinhua, 29 March 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 31 March 1994, p. 48.Google Scholar

^23. Author's communication, 8 March 1995.

^24. Author's conversation, 12 April 1994.

^25. Xinhua, 14 February 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 16 February 1995, p. 43.Google Scholar

^26. Jiefangjun bao (JFJB),21 October 1994, pp. 5–6, in FBIS-CHI, 29 November 1994, p. 35.

^27. See Shambaugh, David, “The soldier and the state: the political work system in the People's Liberation Army,” The China Quarterly,No. 127 (September 1991), pp. 553–568Google Scholar and Lin, Chong-Pin, “The extramilitary roles of the People's Liberation Army in modernization: limits of professionalization,” Security Studies,Vol. 1, No. 4 (Summer 1992), pp. 659–689, for the details of this campaign.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^28. Jianzhong, Zhang, “Ideological and political work in the course of strengthening military training,” JFJB,24 March 1993, p. 3, in FBIS-CHI, 1 April 1993, pp. 37–39.Google Scholar

^29. “Report: General Office of PLA General Political Department issues circular urging subscriptions to Jiefangjun baoas required,” JFJB, 8 October 1993, in FBIS-CHI, 18 October 1993, pp. 34–35.

^30. “Jiefangjun baodirector and chief editor dismissed from posts for publishing report on CNN's interview with Jiang Zeming on page four,” Ming pao [Ming bao](Hong Kong), 2 June 1993, p. 8, in FBIS-CHI, 2 June 1993, pp. 32–33; see also Schiele, R.N., “Deng's men move out of the shadows,” Eastern Express(Hong Kong), 27 December 1994, p.4.Google Scholar

^31. See e.g. “Shidai de baogaoreorganized,” Wen weipo [Wenhui bao](Hong Kong), 14 November 1982, p. 3, in FBIS-CHI, 15 November 1982, p. W/4; Wren, Christopher, “Deng opens drive on his leftist foes,” New York Times,3 October 1982, p. 3.Google Scholar

^32. Yuan-jo, Yü, “Jiang's proposals ‘rebuffed’ by senior officials,” Lien ho pao [Lianhe bao](Hong Kong), 15 October 1993, p. 10, in FBIS-CHI, 18 October 1993, p. 17.Google Scholar

^33. For a representative sample of these, see Chanda, Nayan and Kaye, Lincoln, “Circling hawks,” Far Eastern Economic Review,7 October 1993, pp. 12–13 (re the Olympics and relations with the U.S.)Google Scholar; Lin, Meng, “Generals jointly sign petition on Yinhe incident,” Ching pao [Jing bao](Hong Kong), 5 October 1993, p. 54, in FBIS-CHI, 13 October 1993, pp. 41–42Google Scholar; Ping, Lo, “CCP military attacks Ministry of Foreign Affairs,” Cheng Ming [Zhengming](Hong Kong), 1 July 1994; pp. 6–8 (re the United Nations, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Britain, Japan and the U.S.)Google Scholar; Lam, Willy Wo-lap, “PLA generals take active role in civilian affairs,” South China Morning Post(Hong Kong), 27 July 1994, p. 8 (re Taiwan and the Spratly Islands)Google Scholar; Junrong, Bai, “Rising fear of invasion of Taiwan,” Kuang-chiao chin [Guangjiao jing](Hong Kong), 16 October 1994, pp. 22–27, in FBIS-CHI, 5 January 1995, pp. 36–40.Google Scholar

^34. Lam, “PLA generals take active role,” p. 8.Google Scholar

^35. Xinhua, 13 May 1993, in FBIS-CHI, 18 May 1993, pp. 33–34.Google Scholar

^36. Radio, Beijing, 8 March 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 31 March 1994, pp. 47–48.Google Scholar

^37. See, for example, the articles translated from Xinjiang ribaoof 15 April 1993, p. 2 and 3 May 1993, p. 2, in U.S. National Technical Information Service, Joint Publications Research Service: China Report,23 July 1993, pp. 37–41. Interestingly, “bickering among factions” as well as procurement problems were listed as factors in the operations′ inefficiency.

^38. He Guangming, “Jiefangjun zhongceng,” p. 7; see also Tseng Hui-yen, “Jiefangjun neibu buwen” (“Instability within the PLA”), Pai hsin [Bai xing](Hong Kong), 16 March 1991, pp. 3–5.

^39. After, of course, originally being purged for being ultra-right and, later, “left in appearance but right in essence.”

^40. Chen, David, “Deng moves to retain military control,” South China Morning Post,22 November 1989, p. 8.Google Scholar

^41. Xinhua, 20 November 1989.Google Scholar

^42. Xinhua, 16 July 1994.Google Scholar

^43. Whitson, William W., The Chinese High Command(New York: Praeger, 1973), Chart G, following p. 288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^44. Author's interview with Major Kenneth Allen, 13 March 1995.

^45. “Report from Beijing: Yang Shangkun says failure to eliminate factionalism in military academies affects Party rectification,” Wenhui bao,10 November 1985, p. 3, in FBIS-CHI, 12 November 1985, p. W/l.

^46. See e.g. Dawson, Richard E. and Prewitt, Kenneth, Political Socialization(Boston: Little Brown, 1969) p. 62.Google Scholar

^47. He Guangming, “Jiefang zhongceng,” p. 4.

^48. See, e.g. USDLO, Directory, passim.;Chen Chien-li, “Biographies of Chinese Communist military figures: PLAN Deputy Commander He Pengfei,” Chung-kuo ta-lu [Zhongguo dalu] (Mainland China:Taipei), 1 December 1994, pp. 76–81; Cary Huang, “Liu Shaoqi's son reportedly to head armed police,” Hong Kong Standard,3 May 1994, pp. 1, 7; Shang Dajia, “Introduction to China's female generals,” Beijing Review,No. 32 (8–14 August 1994), pp. 11–19.Google Scholar

^49. Hui-yen, Tseng, “China's military power gradually falls into hands of ‘Shandong Faction’; officers seek promotion by advocating military expansion strategy,” Lianhe bao,21 October p. 10, in FBIS-CHI, 21 October 1994, pp. 34–35.Google Scholar

^50. USDLO, Directory,p. ii.

^51. Arai, Toshiaki, “Jiang's corruption campaign motives,” Yomiuri shimbun(Tokyo), morning edition, 15 May 1995, p. 5, in FBIS (East Asia), 19 May 1995, p. 15.Google Scholar

^52. Ibid.

^53. An American military officer who visited Lhasa was astounded to see soldiers sitting on blankets at a local bazaar selling PLA uniforms and combat boots.

^54. Xinhua, 2 November 1988.Google Scholar

^55. Kyodo (Tokyo), 25 October 1993.Google Scholar

^56. Xinhua, 21 July 1993.Google Scholar

^57. Huaqing, Liu and Zhen, Zhang, “Negative phenomena endangering military,” Renmin ribao,July 1993, in FBIS-CHI, 26 July 26 1993, p. 32.Google Scholar

^58. Xinhua, 4 January 1995.Google Scholar

^59. Chi Wei-ke, “Three new moves on the eve of the Third Plenary Session of the CCP Central Committee,” Jing bao, 5December 1993, in FBIS-CHI, 8 December 1993, p. 20.Google Scholar

^60. Willy Wo-lap Lam, “Top cadres to pledge allegiance to central authorities,” South China Morning Post,6 December 1994, pp. 1, 11.Google Scholar

^61. A source quoted in one Hong Kong paper described the internal transfer of more than a thousand PLA commanders between late 1992 and late 1993 as “quietly taking place to beat regionalism,” and predicted that it would be intensified, accompanied by central government efforts to regain control over economic and financial matters. See “Central leadership moving to bolster power,” South China Morning Post, 2November 1993, p. 1. Other motives might include purging members of the Yang faction, and enforcing retirement ages.

^62. See Ch'ü, T'ung-tsu, Local Government in China Under the Ch 'ing(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 20–21, 172–73 for a more detailed explanation of this law and its consequences.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^63. Lam, Willy Wo-lap, “Deng, Jiang reportedly move to curb PLA,” South China Morning Post,15 November 1989, p. 10.Google Scholar

^64. Xinhua, 8 June 1994.

^65. There are seven military regions, and therefore 14 individuals who might be expected to be promoted to general. However, the senior commissar post in the Shenyang Military Region remained vacant, and that in Nanjing had only a few months before been assumed by Fang Zuqi, who received a promotion from major general to lieutenant general at that time.

^66. See, for example, Commentator, “Solid action must be taken to put things in practice,” JFJB, 10 June 1994, pp. 45–46, which notes, inter alia,that “if politics, principles, and guidelines [established by the CMC] exist only at meetings, in documents, and in people's remarks, they will not play any guiding role, no matter how good they are.”

^67. Lam, Willy Wo-lap, “Jiang Zemin urges PLA to avoid internal politics,” South China Morning Post,20 February 1995, p. 1.Google Scholar