Hostname: page-component-74656f9884-54qdv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-10T07:50:41.285Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Trail Making and Olfaction in Schizophrenia: Implications for Processing Speed

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Nora Goudsmit ,
Rachel Wolitzky ,
Regine Anna Seckinger ,
Cheryl Corcoran ,
Arielle Stanford ,
Paul Rosenfield ,
Ray Goetz  and
Dolores Malaspina
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background:

Previous research has established a relationship between smell identification deficits (SID) and particular aspects of cognitive function among patients with schizophrenia.

Objective:

To expand the extant literature, we examined the relationship between SID and the Trail Making Test to determine if processing speed is related to SID.

Methods:

Our sample included 60 inpatients from the New York State Psychiatric Institute's Schizophrenia Research Unit. We considered age, deficit syndrome, verbai intelligence quotient, and education in our analyses due to their documented relationship to smell identification ability.

Results:

Trails A errors and Trails A seconds accounted for a significant amount of the variance in University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test scores in a regression analysis (R2=.10, P=.008 and R2=.05, P=.04).

Conclusion:

Linking neurocognition to smell identification deficits may prove to be an essential marker for schizophrenia research.

Information

Type
Original Research
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 9 , Issue 5 , May 2004 , pp. 344 - 349,356
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

1.Heinrichs, RW, Zakzanis, KK. Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology. 1998;12:426–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2.Goldberg, TE, Torrey, EF, Gold, JM, et al.Learning and memory in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Psychol Med. 1993;23:71–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.Elvevag, B, Goldberg, TE. Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia is the core of the disorder. Crit Rev Neurobiol. 2000;14:1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Weickert, TW, Goldberg, TE, Gold, JM, Bigelow, LB, Egan, MF, Weinberger, DR. Cognitive impairments in patients with schizophrenia displaying preserved and compromised intellect. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:907–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Heaton, R, Chelune, GJ, Talley, JL, et al.Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-Manual Revised and Expanded. Odessa, Fl: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1993.Google Scholar
6.Stroop, JR. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol. 1935;18:643–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7.Reitan, RM, Wolfson, D. The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery: Therapy and Clinical interpretation. Tuscon, Ariz: Neuropsychological Press; 1985.Google Scholar
8.Kertesz, A. Western Aphasia Battery. San Antonio, Tex: The Psychological Corporation; 1982.Google Scholar
9.Wechsler, D. Wechsler Memory Scale. rev. New York, NY: Psychological Corporation; 1981.Google Scholar
10.Wechsler, D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. rev. San Antonio, Tex: Psychological Corporation; 1987.Google Scholar
11.Stratta, P, Daneluzzo, E, Prosperini, M, Bustini, M, Mattei, P, Rossi, A. Is Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance related to ‘working memory’ capacity? Schizophr Res. 1997;27:11–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.Brewer, WJ, Edwards, J, Anderson, V, Robinson, T, Pantelis, C. Neuropsychological, olfactory and hygiene deficits in men with negative symptom schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;40:1021–1031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Johnstone, EC, Macmillan, JF, Frith, CD, Benn, DK, Crow, TJ. Further investigation of the predictors of outcome following first schizophrenia episodes. Br J Psychiatry. 1990;157:182–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Johnstone, EC, Frith, CD, Lang, FH, Owens, DG. Determinates of the extremes of outcome in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;167:604–609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Silverstein, ML, Fogg, L, Harrow, M. Prognostic significance of cerebral status: dimensions of clinical outcome. J Nero Ment Dis. 1991;179:534–539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Addington, J, Addington, D. Premorbid functioning, cognitive functioning, symptoms and outcome in schizophrenia. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 1993;18:18–23.Google ScholarPubMed
17.Perlick, D, Mattis, S, Stastny, P, Silverstein, B. Negative symptoms are related to both frontal and nonfrontal neuropsychological measures in chronic schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49:245–246.Google ScholarPubMed
18.Buchanan, RW, Strauss, ME, Kirkpatrick, B, Holstein, C, Breier, A, Carpenter, WT Jr.Neuropsychological impairments in deficit vs nondeficit forms of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:804–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Goldberg, TE, Weinberger, DR. Thought disorder, working memory and attention: interrelationships and the effects of neuroleptic medications. Inter Clin Psychopharmacol. 1995;10(suppl):99–104.Google ScholarPubMed
20.Tamminga, CA, Thaker, GK, Buchanan, RW, et al.Limbic system abnormalities identified in schizophrenia using positron emission tomography with fluorodeosyglucose and neocortical alterations with deficit syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49:522–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.HurwitzT, Kopala L, Clark, C, Jones, B. Olfactory deficits in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 1988;23:123–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Serby, M, Larson, P, Kalkstein, D. Olfactory sense in psychoses. Biol Psychiatry. 1990;28:830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Martzke, JS, Kopala, LC, Good, KP. Olfactory dysfunction in neuropsychiatrie disorders: review and methodological considerations. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;42:721–732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24.Moberg, PJ, Agrin, R, Gur, RE, Gur, RC, Turetsky, BI, Doty, RL. Olfactory dysfunction in schizophrenia: a qualitative. and quantitative review. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;21:325–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Malaspina, D, Perera, GM, Lignelli, A, et al.SPECT imaging of odor identification in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 1998;82:53–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Malaspina, D, Coleman, E, Goetz, RR, et al.Odor identification, eye tracking and deficit syndrome schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51:809–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Malaspina, D, Coleman, E. Olfaction and social drive in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003; 60:578–584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Doty, RL, Shaman, P, Dann, W. Development of the university of Pennsylvania smell test standardized microencapsulated test of olfactory function. Physiol Behav. 1984:32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Houlihan, DJ, Flaum, M, Arnold, SE, Keshavan, M, Alliger, R. Further evidence for olfactory identification deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 1994;12:179–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Malaspina, D, Wray, AD, Friedman, JH, et al.Odor discrimination deficits in schizophrenia: associations with eye movement dysfunction. J Neuropsych Clin Neurosci. 1994;6:273–278.Google ScholarPubMed
31.Brewer, WJ, Pantelis, C, Anderson, V, et al.Stability of olfactory identification deficits in neuroleptic-naive patients with first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:107–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Coleman, E, Goetz, R, Leitman, D, et al.Odor identification impairments in schizophrenia: relationships with demographic measures, clinical variables, and diagnostic subtypes. CNS Spectr. 2002;7:43–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Kopala, L, Good, K, Martzke, J, et al.Olfactory deficits in schizophrenia are not a function of task complexity. Schizophr Res. 1995;17:195–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Stedman, TJ, Clair, AL. Neuropsychological, neurological and symptom correlates of impaired olfactory identification in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 1998;32:23–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Seidman, LJ, Talbot, NL, Kalinowski, AG, et al.Neuropsychological probes of fronto-limbic system dysfunction in schizophrenia: olfactory identification and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance. Schizophr Res. 1992;6:55–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.Seidman, LJ, Goldstein, JM, Goodman, JM, et al.Sex differences in olfactory identification and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in schizophrenia: relation to attention and verbal ability. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;42:104–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Kaufman, AS. Assessing Adolescent and Adult Intelligence. Boston, Mass: Simon & Schuster; 1990.Google Scholar
38.Seckinger, RA, Goudsmit, N, Coleman, E, et al.Olfactory identification and WAIS-R performance in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia. Schizphr Res. In press.Google Scholar
39.Carpenter, WT Jr, Heinrichs, DW, Wagman, AM. Deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia: the concept. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;145:578–583.Google Scholar
40.Buchanan, RW, Kirkpatrick, B, Heinrichs, DW, Carpenter, WT Jr.Clinical correlates of the deficit syndrome of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:290–294.Google ScholarPubMed
41.Kirkpatrick, B, Buchanan, RW, Breier, A, Carpenter, WT Jr.Case identification and stability of the deficit syndrome of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 1993;47:47–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Saoud, M, Hueber, T, Mandran, H, et al.Olfactory identification deficiency and WCS T perfonnance in men with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 1998;81:251–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Good, KP, Martzke, JS, Milliken, HI, et al.Unihomal olfactory identification deficits in young mate patients with schizophrenia and related disorders: association with impaired memory function. Schizophr Res. 2002;56:211–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44.Purdon, SE. Olfactory identification and Stroop interference converge in schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Neurosci. 1998;23:163–171.Google ScholarPubMed
45.Doty, RL, Frye, RE, Agrawal, U. Internal consistency reliability of the fractionated and whole University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test. Percept Psychophys. 1989:45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46.Kirkpatrick, B, Buchanan, RW, McKenney, PD, Alphs, LD, Carpenter, WT Jr.The Schedule for the Deficit syndrome: an instrument for research in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 1989;30:119–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Nurnberger, JI, Blehar, MC, Kaufmann, CA, et al.Diagnostic interview for genetic studies. Rationale, unique features, and training. NIMH Genetics Initiative. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994:51:849–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar