Teachers

EFL teaching in Chinese universities is conducted by a contingent of teachers who are indigenous Chinese and have been basically trained at home institutions where there are only a few native speakers of English. It is estimated that there are approximately 60,000 university English teachers, but only a privileged minority of teachers have the opportunity of studying in English-speaking countries (Zhang, Reference Zhang2010). Many university English teachers in China have not had any formal teacher training, but have been fully occupied with a heavy teaching load because the number of university students is gradually increasing (Borg & Liu, Reference Borg and Liu2013). On the whole, English teachers at the tertiary level are proficient in the English language, but not many of them are familiar with the current trends in EFL methodology. Although CLT has been strongly advocated since the early 1990s, most teachers in Chinese universities find it difficult and awkward to teach English in the communicative way and still adhere to the traditional methods and technologies (Zhu, Reference Zhu2003). A study conducted by Liu & Gong (Reference Liu and Gong2000) revealed that many EFL teachers in Chinese universities considered memorization of grammar rules and patterns of usage as an efficient way in which to learn English.

Teachers in China (either in middle schools or in universities) are not free to teach whatever they want in the classroom. All the textbooks and teaching materials are nationally uniform, and teachers are expected to cover the curriculum developed by the government. Teaching groups modeled on the formal Soviet system were initiated in the early 1950s when the structural reorganization of higher learning was taking place. Under this system, teachers who teach similar courses also prepare lectures collectively, discuss teaching programs and materials, work out central or difficult points in a lecture, watch demonstrations by master teachers, give teaching practice to new teachers, attend refresher training courses, and collect and study questions or opinions raised during or after class.

Class assignments are carefully allocated to each member of a teaching group. Each teacher looks up background information, does research on the topic of the text, examines difficult points and determines what is important to emphasize. A weekly group meeting is then held where all this information is mutually shared and discussed. After each teacher's report is reviewed by the group, teachers write their own lectures. Teachers feel secure in knowing that they are presenting collective knowledge to their students which may eventually appear in the examination.

Most of the English lectures in China are teacher-centered and book-centered (Rao, Reference Rao1996; Hu, Reference Hu2002). Chinese teachers are unwilling to risk departure from the text because of the whole system of teaching preparation adopted from the former Soviet Russia straight after liberation. Teachers prepare texts and materials that:

1. (1) are politically safe and sanctioned;

2. (2) contain texts short enough to cover in one lecture;

3. (3) have appropriate grammatical and translation exercises after each text which they feel are targeted to the structures the Chinese have the most problems with;

4. (4) have the important points already highlighted for them.

It is also appreciated if background information is included in the teacher's manual. In general, teachers do not endeavor to risk using new materials because they know that being innovative costs them additional work and causes potential embarrassment (Fang & Warschauer, Reference Fang and Warschauer2004).

All these factors have inevitably led to teacher-centered classroom teaching, which is repeatedly reported in the literature. Young & Lee (Reference Young, Lee, Larson, Judd and Messerschmitt1985) compared teaching styles between over 500 Chinese teachers and 40 Anglo teachers. Using a questionnaire designed to elicit teachers’ attitudes towards teacher-directed or student-centered classrooms, Young & Lee (Reference Young, Lee, Larson, Judd and Messerschmitt1985) discovered a highly significant and wide difference between the two groups. The replies from the Chinese teachers showed consistently more favorable attitudes towards teacher-directed classroom activities than was the case for Western teachers. Moreover, it was found that the Chinese teachers’ attitudes were not susceptible to change by means of interventions such as in-service teacher retraining courses designed to develop more positive attitudes towards student-centered learning and communicative language teaching. The findings of Young & Lee's (Reference Young, Lee, Larson, Judd and Messerschmitt1985) study were later supported by Paine's (Reference Paine and Hayhoe1992) fieldwork.

To make university English teachers in China follow trends in modern EFL teaching and to meet the challenges of the new century, administrators and researchers in the Ministry of Education and universities have taken a series of measures to develop EFL teacher education, and many leading linguistics and applied linguistics programs have been involved in organizing teacher training programs (Wu, Reference Wu2001). However, as there is a severe lack of EFL teachers and a variety of needs for teacher training, there are no suitable models of teacher development in China (Borg & Liu, Reference Borg and Liu2013). How can we reconcile traditional Chinese EFL teaching with modern Western teaching methods? What can we do to meet the challenges we face? These are urgent questions that need to be answered before the efficiency of teacher training programs can be greatly improved.

Students

Since 1977, educational institutes at the tertiary level in China have been enrolling students by national matriculation. At the beginning of the 1980s, competition to be admitted to a tertiary institute was extremely fierce, and only a very small number of graduates (about 1–2%) from senior middle schools could enter university. In 1999, the number of graduates from senior middle schools admitted by Chinese universities and colleges was 2 million, but it rose to 20 million in 2004 (Jin & Cortazzi, Reference Jin and Cortazzi2006). However, in 2010 the number was as high as 30 million (Xinhua, 2011).

Upon admission to tertiary institutes, students will have acquired some primary English vocabulary ranging from 2,000 to 2,500 words and a basic knowledge of English grammar with acceptable English pronunciation and intonation (Jin & Cortazzi, Reference Jin and Cortazzi2006). On average, these students can read some simple English texts without too much difficulty, but they are quite weak at writing, and even weaker at listening and speaking. There are some students who have attended key middle schools in large cities and therefore use English well above average. There are also some other students, particularly those from small towns and rural areas, whose English proficiency lags far behind that of their classmates.

Not only is there a gap in English proficiency among students from various types of middle schools, but there is also a great difference in the use of language learning strategies, which is mainly caused by their different English learning experiences in middle schools. In general, middle schools in large cities are privileged in terms of teachers’ qualifications and teaching facilities. Key provincial middle schools enjoy even more privileges. Almost all the teachers in these schools are well trained in both the English language and English language teaching. Some of these key schools can even employ teachers from English-speaking countries. Besides, these schools can afford highly sophisticated language laboratories and other modern teaching equipment. In contrast, middle schools in small towns and rural areas are poorly funded. Teachers there do not have much training in English because they have learnt a limited amount of English themselves, either by self-study or by attending a short English training course (Hu, Reference Hu2003). Undoubtedly, such a striking difference in English teaching among various types of middle schools will result in students’ different learning habits and strategies.

Students admitted to universities continue to have another two years of English learning. During these two years, they receive about 300 classroom hours of English instruction. The College English Syllabus issued in 2002 included 5,109 vocabulary items, not including phrases, derivations and proper nouns. Also stressed in this syllabus is the training of four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and reading), as well as traditional grammatical requirements. Since English is one of the compulsory courses in universities, all the students are required to pass the College English Test (CET) Band 4, a nationwide standard English test. This is the minimum requirement for graduates in Chinese universities.

The English Intensive Reading Course in Chinese universities

The Intensive Reading Course is the premier language course carried out in almost all Chinese universities. There is a uniform syllabus, textbooks and corresponding examination system for the course. Four hours per week are allocated to this course during the first two years of students’ university study. Students learn one text per week from a textbook such as the widely used New College English (Dong, Reference Dong2010), a course of four levels which prepares students for the compulsory examinations, CET Band 1 through to CET Band 4.

The Intensive Reading Course is not designed primarily to improve reading comprehension. Rather, it is a multi-purpose comprehensive course embodying the following characteristics:

1. (1) It is text based: each lesson consists of a model text followed by exercises on phonetics, grammar, vocabulary, translation and supplementary material. In fact, the text serves as the basis for both oral English practice (pronunciation, dialogues, questions and answers, retelling and paraphrasing) and written work (spelling, sentence-making, translation, summary and abstracts).

2. (2) It is grammar-vocabulary based: texts are compiled in a morphology-syntax sequence such as verb tenses and types of sentences, which are dealt with one by one. Meanwhile, active words are selected for sentence-making.

3. (3) It is teacher centered: the teacher dominates the course by explaining the text in great detail and telling students what they should learn from the text. Students, on the other hand, do what the teacher asks them to do.

A typical unit in College English begins with a two-page text followed by a list of new words, phrases and expressions with the pronunciations given and meanings indicated by English synonyms and Chinese translations. This is followed by explanatory notes on the historical background and idioms. There is then a sequence of multiple-choice comprehension questions, more general discussion points, blank-filling exercises for word building and sentence structure, a cloze passage, and sentences for translation. Finally, there is a further reading text with more multiple-choice questions and a writing exercise which usually focuses on a grammatical point.

Based on our observation and experience and comments by Wu (Reference Wu and Wang1990), the Intensive Reading Course enables students:

1. (1) to read the text aloud (or recite or paraphrase it) with fairly good pronunciation;

2. (2) to learn hundreds, if not thousands, of new vocabulary items with detailed explanations of meanings and to use these new words in exercises through blank filling, paraphrasing, word formation and other methods;

3. (3) to learn and to practice certain grammatical points exemplified in the text;

4. (4) to speak on a limited range of subjects related to the texts;

5. (5) to write generally correct sentences, short compositions and do translations based on the content and language of the texts.

The teaching of this course is usually carried out in two stages: teachers’ and students’ preparation for the new unit before the class. As noted above, teachers prepare their lessons extensively before they start teaching. They go over each text in meticulous detail. Teachers’ own copies of the textbook are full of penciled margin notes which enable them to expound on every likely grammatical point or word meaning which may arise. The teachers believe that they should have authoritative knowledge of all aspects of the text. Students also prepare for the new unit extensively. They refer to dictionaries for unknown words. They try hard to understand the text. Many students memorize the grammatical examples. Some will memorize the whole text.

The classroom teaching begins with the teacher asking students to read aloud. The teacher will check pronunciation and intonation and ask some general comprehension questions. The teacher then explains new words in the text. These are practiced in word study exercises involving pronunciation, translation, use of synonyms and paraphrasing. Then there are comprehensive explanations of selected grammatical points and their functions in the text. These points are practiced by drills, translations, sentence manipulation and blank-filling exercises. Further practice includes paraphrasing, summarizing and retelling the content of the text. The assessment of whether the text has been understood depends largely on how well students can remember the new words and grammar and how well they are able to use this knowledge to complete exercises and pass regular tests.

The Intensive Reading Course has been the target of much criticism in recent years (Jin & Cortazzi, Reference Jin and Cortazzi2006), and a number of researchers and teachers have been endeavoring to teach this course in innovative ways. Fang & Warschauer (Reference Fang and Warschauer2004) reported on a 5-year (1998–2003) longitudinal case study of a technology-enhanced educational reform initiative at a university in east China. A faculty team incorporated technology into this traditional English course to better prepare English students to use new technologies for communication. The findings of the study showed that such technology-enhanced English teaching greatly improved the students’ communicative competence. However, few teachers were willing to teach this course because such instruction is time-consuming and because student-centered learning goes against traditional norms and incentives in Chinese higher education. In addition, Chinese EFL teachers find it difficult to change this course because it is closely tied to the national system of examinations (Li, Reference Li1984). All these findings tell us that the Intensive Reading Course is a product of particular cultural, social and economic circumstances which have strongly influenced the ways in which English has been taught and learnt in China since the 1950s.

Prospects for EFL teaching in Chinese universities in the 21st century

All the aforementioned information proves that EFL teaching at the tertiary level in China is still conducted in traditional ways. Although they are encouraged to adapt themselves to the new challenges of EFL teaching and refresh their teaching approaches by using CLT, most Chinese teachers of English in universities feel secure and comfortable in sticking to their traditional methods and techniques (Yu, Reference Yu2001; Hu, Reference Hu2002). EFL teaching in Chinese university classrooms, such as the Intensive Reading Course mentioned above, still follows the classroom procedures employed in the 1950s. Perhaps one of the best ways to teach English in China in the 21st century is to reconcile CLT with Chinese traditional teaching methods (Rao, Reference Rao1996, Reference Rao2002). Numerous studies demonstrate that traditional teaching methods can work together with CLT, and that students’ English proficiency can be greatly improved by such reconciliation of teaching methods (Roberts, Reference Roberts and Kinsella1982; Harvey, Reference Harvey1985; Rao, Reference Rao2002).

To make some adjustments and to combine the teaching methods used in English classrooms, EFL teachers in Chinese universities should, first of all, balance their teaching activities between elaborating linguistic details and developing students’ communicative competence. As stated earlier, EFL teachers in Chinese universities devote most of their classroom time to the detailed explanation of language points, and then ask the students to learn them by heart. There is nothing wrong in Chinese teachers organizing their classroom teaching like this. In China, students have little access to the English language outside the classroom, so it is of prime importance for teachers to help them understand the language in a text. However, while helping students understand the linguistic details, teachers should also provide them with opportunities to learn how to use the language. They should engage students in group work, role play, games or discussion, so as to develop their communicative competence. One of the studies that followed this teaching pattern was conducted by Dai (Reference Dai2010), who explored the teaching of creative writing in English to sophomores at Sun Yat-sen University in China. The study was carried out at two levels: the micro level and the macro level. At the micro level, it addressed linguistic details in students’ writing and helped them work on problematic constructions in writing. At the macro level, it aimed to teach students the craft of creative writing in workshops. The results indicate that such a pattern to teach English writing is an effective way not only to improve students’ writing skills but also to enhance their personal development in general.

Another way to reconcile traditional teaching methods with CLT is to relate grammar teaching to meaning and use. In other words, the teaching of English grammar should be given in contexts which involve some basic principles of appropriateness. Instead of teaching grammar as a means to an end, teachers should realize that grammar is a tool to be used in the comprehension and creation of oral and written discourse. They should make language situations and language material as realistic as possible. Immediately after providing students with adequate explanations of grammar rules, the teacher should provide them with suitable circumstances to practice the rules so that students can ultimately use them in real life. A good example of this was provided by Fotos & Ellis (Reference Fotos and Ellis1991), who integrated grammar instruction with opportunities for meaning communication. The researchers presented the case for the use of a particular type of language learning task to encourage communication about grammar. The results demonstrated that grammar tasks successfully promoted L2 linguistic knowledge of a specific grammatical point and produced the kind of negotiated interaction which has been assumed to facilitate L2 acquisition. The study proved that the grammar task could encourage communication about grammar and enable EFL learners to increase their knowledge of a difficult L2 rule. Similar results were also reported in the studies by Fotos (Reference Fotos1994) and Newton & Kennedy (Reference Newton and Kennedy1996).

The final aspect in which we can combine traditional methods with CLT is to make appropriate use of the students’ mother tongue. Traditionally, the use of the mother tongue is closely connected with the outdated grammar-translation method. However, for most EFL students, there is a keen interest in an exact understanding of every word and a low tolerance for ambiguity (Harvey, Reference Harvey1985). To cater for this requirement, EFL teachers often turn to translation for help and attempt to equate a target language structure item with its closest or most common correlate in the mother tongue. In fact, nothing is wrong in teachers using this teaching strategy, but they must ensure that the use of the mother tongue is strictly controlled. In teaching vocabulary, for example, the teacher should not use this technique unless they come across a word or phrase with a complex and abstract meaning. They should realize that the use of the mother tongue is to help students have a thorough understanding of the target language so as to lay a solid foundation for improving their communicative competence. A recent study by Meij & Zhao (Reference Meij and Zhao2010), for example, investigated the teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards code-switching between Chinese (L1) and English (L2) in English courses in two universities in China. The findings revealed that both teachers and students expressed the view that teacher code-switching in English classroom teaching is desirable and functional, and that the mother tongue is a useful resource for facilitating the students’ learning process.