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Education and Professionalization: An Historical Example

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Vern L. Bullough
Vern L. Bullough*
Affiliation:
San Fernando Valley State College
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Extract

The study of professions and professionalization has received great impetus in recent years, particularly in English-speaking countries, but generally overlooked is the importance that universities have always had in determining which groups came to be recognized as professions. In fact institutionalization of training within the university seems to have been the key to professionalization from the very beginning of the modern concept, and those areas which first were regarded as “graduate” subjects (medicine, divinity, and law) early came to be looked upon as professions.

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Type
Research Article
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , Summer 1970, pp. 160 - 169
Copyright
Copyright © 1970 History of Education Quarterly 

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References

Notes

1. There are various tabulations of the characteristics that make up a profession. They can be found in Carr-Saunders, A. M. and Wilson, P. A., The Professions (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933) and similar books. For a general discussion of the concept of professions, see Talcott Parsons, “The Professions and Social Structure,” Social Forces, XVII (1939). The only historical study of medicine during the period under study, other than my own work, that I am able to cite is Wicker-shimer, Ernest, “L'évolution de la profession médicale au cours du moyen ăge,” Scalpel, No. 42–44 (1924).Google Scholar

2. See Bullough, Vern L., The Development of Medicine as a Profession (Basle: Karger; New York: Hafner, 1966), passim. Google Scholar

3. Puschmann, Theodore, A History of Medical Education trans. Hare, Evan H. (London: H. K. Lewis, 1896). For various universities, see Oskar Kristeller, Paul, “The School of Salerno,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine (BHM), XVII (1945), 138–94; Bullough, Vern L., “The Development of the Medical University at Montpellier to the End of the Fourteenth Century,” BHM, XXX (1956); idem, “Medieval Bologna and Medical Education,” BHM (1958), 201–15; idem, “The Medieval Medical University at Paris,” BHM, XXXI (1957), 197–211; idem, “Medical Study at Medieval Oxford,” Speculum, XXXVI (1961), 600–12; idem, “The Medieval Medical School at Cambridge,” Medieval Studies, XXIV (1962), 161–68; MacKinney, Loren C., “Medical Education in the Middle Ages,” Journal of World History, II (1955).Google Scholar

4. de Chauliac, Guy, La Grande chirurgie ed. and trans. into French by Nicaise, E. (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1890), p. 18.Google Scholar

5. Yperman, Jan, De cyryrgie ed. van Leersum, E. C. (Leiden, 1912), Book I, chap. iv.Google Scholar

6. There is a good discussion of this by Catherine Welborn, Mary, “The Long Tradition: A Study in Fourteenth-Century Medical Deontology,” in Mediaeval and Historiographical Essays in Honor of James Westfall Thompson, ed. Cate, James L. and Anderson, Eugene N. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1938).Google Scholar

7. See Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, ed. and annotated by Denifle, H. and Chatelain, A., 4 vols. (Paris: Delalin, 1889–1897), I, No. 434, 488–90. For an English translation of this document, see Thorndike, Lynn, ed. and trans., University Records and Life in the Middle Ages (New York: Columbia University Press, 1944), pp. 83–85.Google Scholar

8. Chart. Univ. Paris., II, Nos. 693, 693a,b,c, 149–53. For an example of this and other cases, see Kibre, Pearl, “The Faculty of Medicine at Paris, Charlatanism, and Unlicensed Medical Practices in the Later Middle Ages,” BHM, XXVII (1953), 1–20.Google Scholar

9. Chart. Univ. Paris., II, Nos. 811–16, 255–67.Google Scholar

10. Ibid., II, No. 844, 285–86.Google Scholar

11. Ibid., II, No. 1138, 602–03, and III, No. 1197, 7–8.Google Scholar

12. Ordonnances des rois de France, ed. Eusèbe Jacob de Laurière, Denis François Secousse, et al., 21 vols. (Paris, 1723–1849), II, 532, 439; and numerous other ordinances.Google Scholar

13. Chart. Univ. Paris., II, No. 817, 268–69.Google Scholar

14. Ibid., II, No. 1501, 462, and Ordonnances, II, 116, 532–35.Google Scholar

15. See, for example, Cartulaire de l'Université de Montpellier, 2 vols. (Montpellier: Richard Frères, 1890), I, No. 2, 180–83, and No. 4, 186. See also Thomas Riley, Henry, Memorials of London and London Life, 2 vols. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1848), II, 464–66; London City Corporation, Calendar of Early Mayor's Court Rolls Preserved Among the Archives of the Corporation of the City of London at the Guildhall, 1298–1307), ed. Thomas, A. H. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1924), p. 51. There are many other references that could be cited.Google Scholar

16. See Bullough, Vern L., “The Development of the Medical Guilds at Paris,” Medievalia et Humanistica, XII (1958), 33–40; idem, “Training of Nonuniversity-Educated Medical Practitioners in the Later Middle Ages,” Journal of the History of Medicine, XIV (1959), 447–58.Google Scholar

17. Kibre, Pearl, Scholarly Privileges in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, Mass.: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1962), pp. 82–83.Google Scholar

18. Statuti dell' università e dei collegi dello studio Bolognese, ed. Carlo Malagola (Bologna: Nicola Zanichelli, 1868), rubric 29, p. 444.Google Scholar

19. Rotuli parliamentorurm; ut et petitiones, et placita in parliamento, 6 vols. (London, 1767–1777), IV, 158.Google Scholar

20. Huillard-Bréholles, J. L. A., Historia diplomatica Friderici Secundi 7 vols. (Paris: Plon frătres, 1852–61), IV, p. I, titulus lxv, 150 and titulus lxvii, 151; and Pietré, Giuseppe, Medici, chirurgi, barbieri e spezialia antichi in Sicilia, secoli XIII-XVIII (Rome, 1942), pp. 1 ff.Google Scholar

21. This is the conclusion of P. Pansier in a review of the book by Madon, Maurice, Les maîtres chirurgiens which appeared in Janus, X (1905), 95–96. I agree with the conclusion, but it would take a great deal of material to document in a footnote.Google Scholar

22. Roth, Cecil, “The Qualifications of Jewish Physicians in the Middle Ages,” Speculum, XXVIII (1953), 835.Google Scholar

23. Friedenwald, Harry, The Jews and Medicine, 2 vols. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1944), I, 224.Google Scholar

24. See, for example, D. O'Malley, C., Andreas Vesalius of Brussels (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1964).Google Scholar