1. No general history of Iranian rituals, performances, and theater exists in English. The only book in a European language is in French: Rezvani, Medjid, Le théâtre et la danse en Iran (Paris, 1962)Google Scholar, containing useful but inaccurate information. There are two general and compact articles in English by Peter J. Chelkowski, “Iranian Passion Play” (Ta'zieh) and Farrokh Gaffary, “Iranian Secular Theatre,” in the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama (1983). Also two informative bibliographies by P. J. Chelkowski (Ta'zia) and F. Gaffary (Secular Theatre, Dance, Film, Radio, T.V. and Zurkhāna) in Elwell-Sutton, L. P. (ed.), Bibliographical Guide to Iran (Cambridge, 1983).Google Scholar The best book on the history of Iranian theater (from the beginning up to the introduction of Western-style comedy) is in Persian: Bahram Beyza'i, Namāyesh dar Iran (Tehran, 1344/1965Google Scholar; revised and corrected edition to be published).

2. R. D. Barnett, Homme masqué ou Dieu-ibex? in Syria XLIII (1966), fasc. 3-4; and P. Amiet, L'iconographie archaīque de l'Iran, in Syria LVI (1979), fasc. 3-4. The figurines are in the Brooklyn Museum and in the Albright-Knox Art Gallery of Buffalo.

3. Taqizadeh, S. H., Articles and Essays in English, Vol. VI (Tehran, 1978), pp. 99, 105, 336.Google Scholar

4. Plutarch, Lives: Crassus.

5. M. Boyce, The Parthian “gōsān” and Iranian minstrel tradition, in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (1957), pp. 10-45. Also Boyce, M., Parthian literature, in Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. III (2) (1983), pp. 1155–56.Google Scholar

6. Ettinghausen, R., “The Dance with Zoomorphic Masks,” in Makdisi, George (ed.), Arabic and Islamic Studies in Honour of H. A. R. Gibb (Leiden, 1965)Google Scholar, gives valuable information about masks and disguises.

7. F. Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra (1903; republished by Dover Publications, 1956); M. Vermaserren, Mithra (London, 1963); Turcan, R. A., Mithra et le Mithriacisme (Paris, 1981).Google Scholar

8. R. Ghirshman, Iran (London, 1954); Ghirshman, R., Iran: Parthian and Sassanians (London, 1962), pp. 214–17.Google Scholar

9. Al Biruni, , The Chronology of Ancient Nations (trans. by Sachau, E.) (London, 1879Google Scholar; reprint in 1969), pp. 199-226. Also Gardizi, Zeyn-al Akhbār (11th century) (Tehran, 1347/1968), p. 245, and Farhang-e Mo'in (Kuse barneshin).

10. Enjavi, A. Q., Jashnhā va Ādāb-e Zemestān (Tehran, 1352/1973 and 1354/1975; 2 vols.)Google Scholar; Gaffary, F., “Deguisements et Cortèges en Iran,” in Boussel, P. and Gaignebet, C. (eds.), Carnavals et Mascarades (Paris, 1985.Google Scholar

11. And, M., Turkish Folk Theatre, in Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. XXXVIII-2 (1979), pp. 155–176.Google Scholar

12. Gardizi, Zeyn-al Akhbār (Tehran, 1347/1968. Also S. Hedāyat, Neyrangestān (Tehran, 2536/1977), p. 105.

13. Compare with the actual Turkish game of “Dede”: M. And, Turkish folk games, in Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 92, n. 363, p. 46.Google Scholar

14. Hāfez, Divān, ed. by A. Q. Enjavi (Tehran, 1358/1979), pp. 252-53; and M. Qazvini, “Mir-e Noruzi, in Yādegār, I, n. 3 (Tehran, 1323/1944.

15. Ginisty, P., Le théâtre de la rue (Paris, 1925), p. 5.Google Scholar

16. Arnold, Th., Painting in Islam, Illustr. XLVII (republished New York, 1965)Google Scholar; and R. Ettinghausen, op. cit. (Plates III to V and VIII).

17. Zarrinkub, A. H., “Persian Sufism,” in Iranian Studies, Vol. III (3-4) (1970), pp. 143–144, 180-184.Google Scholar Contains an excellent resumé. Zarrinkub, A. H., Arzesh-e Mirās-e Sufiye (Tehran, 1362/1983).Google Scholar

18. Manuscript in the Fogg Museum (135 recto) reproduced in Cary Welch, S., Royal Persian Manuscripts (London, 1976), pp. 21, 68.Google Scholar

19. R. Ettinghausen, op. cit.; he also is of the same opinion.

20. M. Sotude, “Namāyesh-e ‘Arusi dar Jangal,” in Yādegār, Vol. I (8) (1323/1944). Compare with A. Q. Enjavi, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 111-123, 132-135 and Vol. II, p. 172.

21. Yarshater, E., “Iranian National History,” in Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. III (2), pp. 448–451.Google Scholar E. Yarshater’s article in Chelkowski, P. J. (ed.), Tazieh, Ritual and Drama in Iran (New York, 1979).Google Scholar For Sogdian (Penjikent) mural on Siyāvosh: Bussagli, M., Paintings of Central Asia (London, 1965)Google Scholar; G. Azarpay, Arts in Transoxiana, in “C.H.I.” III (2), pp. 1146-1148; Talbot Rice, T., Ancient Arts of Central Asia (London, 1965).Google Scholar

22. Daneshvar, S., Suvashun (Tehran, 1978; 9th ed.).Google Scholar

23. Meskub, Sh., Sug-e Siyāvosh (Tehran, 1978Google Scholar; 5th ed.) (an intelligent study of martyrs).

24. Tomiche, N. and Khaznadar, Ch., Le théâtre arabe (Paris: UNESCO, 1969).Google Scholar

25. Described in “Ghiyāth-al loghāt” dictionary (1826-27) and quoted in Beyzā'i, Namāyesh dar Iran, pp. 112-14.

26. M. Rezvani, Le thāâtre et la danse en Iran, p. 123.

27. M. And, Karagöz (Istanbul, Dost, 1979), p. 104. A very good résumé on West Asian shadows and puppets.

28. Cellière, A., Deux comedies turques (Paris, 1888).Google Scholar

29. Chodzdo, A. (circa 1833), Le théâtre persan (Paris, 1878)Google Scholar is the oldest reference known to me, about Pahlavān kachal. See also the Russian Berezin, I. K. (1842-43), Puteshestevie po sieviernoy Persi (Kazan, 1852)Google Scholar; and Dozy, R., Essai sur l'histoire de l'islamisme (Leyden, 1879).Google Scholar

30. Persian texts and Russian translations in R. Galubov, “Pahlavan kachal,” in Iran II (Leningrad, 1928); and R. Galubov, “Kheyme shab bāzi,” in Iran III (Leningrad, 1929).

31. Beyzā'i, op. cit., pp. 82-112.

32. Pietro della Valle, Safar-nāme (Pers. trans.), Vol. I (Tehran, 1348/1969).

33. Yarshater, E., “Development of Persian Drama,” in Chelkowski, P. J. (ed.), Iran: Continuity and Variety (New York: New York University, 1971).Google Scholar This article is a concise narrative of Iranian theater.

34. Fischer, M. J., Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980)Google Scholar contains information on ta'zie.

35. Francklin, W., Observations Made on a Tour from Bengal to Persia in the Year 1786-1787 (London, 1790).Google Scholar

36. Chelkowski, P. J. (ed.), Tazieh: Ritual and Drama in Iran (New York, 1979)Google Scholar is the best and most recent general book on the subject. A. Krymsky, Persian Theatre (published in Ukrainian in Kiev, 1925 and translated into English by V. Pechenuk but unpublished. Contains very important extracts of western travelers witnessing these rituals.) Rossi, E. and Bombaci, A., Elenco di drammi religiosi Persiani (Vatican, 1961)Google Scholar, an important list in Italian, of the Vatican Library collection of 1055 “majles” gathered by Enrico Cerruli. de Gobineau, A., Religions et philosophies dans l'Asie centrale (Paris, 1865Google Scholar; reprinted many times). Chodzko, A., Le théâtre persan (Paris, 1878).Google Scholar Beyzā'i, op. cit., pp. 116-66. The Persian text of the “Jong-e shahādat” published by Z. Eqbāl and M. J. Mahjub (Tehran, 2535/1976), Vol. I. Also a recent university dissertation: H. Esmaili Eivanaki, “La sémiologie du spectacle traditionnel (ta'zie) en Iran” (Paris, 1982; mimeographed).

37. Calmard, J., “Le mé'énat des representations de ta'zie,” in Le monde Iranien et l'Islam Vol. II (1974) and Vol. IV (1976-77)Google Scholar is a remarkable study of the performances in the nineteenth century.

38. Benjamin, S. G. W., Persia and the Persians (London and Boston, 1886).CrossRefGoogle Scholar The first American diplomatic envoy to Tehran gives a good description of Takie dowlat. A drawn reconstitution of a previous takie by Jacqueline Calmard in J. Calmard, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 106-12 and 124-26.

39. Pelly, L., The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain (London, 1879Google Scholar; reprinted recently) contains a translation of 37 plays.

40. Arnold, M., “A Persian Passion Play,” in Essays in Criticism, Vol. II (London, 1871).Google Scholar

41. P. J. Chelkowski, “Iran: Mourning Becomes Revolution,” in Asia (May-June 1980); also M. J. Fischer,

42. Khāleqi, R. A., Sargozasht-e musiqi-ye Irāni, 2nd ed. (Tehran, 1353/1974), Vol. 1, pp. 332–65.Google Scholar Mashhun, H., Musiqi-ye mazhabi-ye Irān (Tehran, 1350/1971).Google Scholar

43. J. Calmard, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 81. For a comparison with a Western mystery play: Forough, M., Abraham's sacrifice, in A. U. Pope (ed.), Survey of Persian Art 3rd ed. (Tehran-Tokyo, 1977), Vol. XIV.Google Scholar

44. Vivid description of the sceneries in A. de Gobineau, op. cit.

45. Drouville, G., Voyage en Perse (Paris, 1825), Table 1, pp. 191-192.Google Scholar For more recent description: Ella Sykes, Persia and Its People (New York, 1910), p. 153.Google Scholar

46. M. Baktash's-article in “Tazieh: Ritual and Drama in Iran,” ed P. J. Chelkowski), op. cit., pp. 95-120. Also Z. Eghbal, “Ta'zie: Théâtre religieux en Iran á l'époque Ghadjar” (Paris, 1981; University dissertation; mimeographed).

47. See the article (sometimes partial) of Peter Brook, “Leaning on the Moment,” in Parabola (May 1979).

48. P. Mamnoun's article in Tazieh: Ritual and Drama in Iran, ed. by P. J. Chelkowski,

49. See M. Baktash, op. cit., and Z. Eghbal, op. cit.

50. The latter published with an introduction by Ghaffary, F. in Teātr-e Irāni (Tehran, 1350/1971), pp. 79–134.Google Scholar

51. The already mentioned book Tazieh: Ritual and Drama in Iran contains the proceedings of the symposium.

52. Chardin, J., voyages en Perse (Paris, 1811)., Vol. VIII, pp. 124–130.Google Scholar

53. Chardin, J., Voyages en Perse (Paris, 1811), Vol. III, p. 449, Vol. IV, p. 309.Google Scholar

54. Khān, Mirzā Hoseyn, Joghrāfiye-ye Esfahān, ed. Sotude, M. (Tehran 1342/1963).Google Scholar Writing in 1877, the author describes baqqāl bāzi and mentions that, on the occasion of Fath Ali Shah or Mohammad Shah's visit to the city, the comedians during a performance dared to draw the king's attention to injustice committed by the authorities in Isfahan.

55. A first mention of such an arrangement in presence of Karim Khan Zand (1750-79) in Shiraz: ol-Hokamā, Rostam, Rostam ol-Tavārikh (Tehran, 1348/1969), p. 345Google Scholar; and later another mention of Takht-e hozi in presence of Fath ‘Ali Shah Qajar (April 1833) in Tehran: Fraser, J. B., A Winter's Journey from Constantinople to Tehran (London, 1838), Vol. II, p. 88.Google Scholar

56. See a résumé of such a ruhozi in James Mew, “The Modern Persian Stage,” in The Fortnightly Review LIX (January-June 1896).

57. Texts of some female plays in A. Q. Enjavi, Bāzihāy-e namāyeshi (Tehran, 1352/1973). Also B. Beyzā'i, op. cit., pp. 216-219.

58. Beeman, W. O., “A Full Arena: The Development and Meaning of Popular Performance Traditions in Iran,” ed. by Bonine, M. and Keddie, N., Modern Iran (Albany, 1981).Google Scholar Also an excellent description of ruhozi and rural comedies in Beeman, W. O., “Why Do They Laugh,” in Journal of American Folklore, 94(4) (1981)Google Scholar; and Beeman's book, Culture, Performance and Communication in Iran (Tokyo, 1982).Google Scholar

59. Tiyātr-e Karim Shire'i, ed. by B. Mo'meni (Tehran, 2537/1978). For the apocryphal side of this baggāl bāzi, see Malekpur, J., Adabiyat-e Namayeshi dar Iran (Tehran, 1363/1984).Google Scholar

60. E'temād-al-saltane, Ruznāme-ye Khāterāt, 3rd ed. (Tehran, 2536/1977). Also M. Baktāsh's article in Faslnāme-ye Teātr, No. 5 (Tehran, Autumn 1357/1978). Much information on the buffoons, the daste and ta'zie in Mostowfi, A., Sharh-e zendegāni-ye mān, 2nd ed. (Tehran, n.d.), 3 vols.Google Scholar

61. The more important early diaries mentioning theater are: (a) Mirzā Abutāleb Khān (1754-1805), Iranian settled in India, traveled in Europe (1799-1803), his Masir-e Tālebi was translated into English by Ch. Stuart (London, 1810) and into French (Paris, 1811) published in Persian in Calcutta (1812); best edition by H. Khadiv Jam (Tehran, 1352/1973). (b) Mirzā Abol-Hasan Khān Ilchi (1776-1846), traveled to England between 1809 and 1819, his Heyrat nāme-ye sofarā, unpublished as yet. Went on mission to Russia (1813-1816) his new diary Dalil-al sofarā, published in Tehran only in 1357/1978. (c) Mirzā Sāleh Shirāzi was in England between 1815-1819, his Safarnāme published in Tehran only in 1347/1968. (d) Mirzā Mostafā traveled in Russia in 1829, his Ahvālāt-e safar-e Mirzā Mas'ud, published in Tehran only in 1345/1966 (Nashriye-e Vezārat-e Khāreje, III, 6). (e) Rezā Qoli Mirzā in England between 1835-36, translated into English (London, 1839, 2 vol.), his Safarnāme-ye Rezā Qoli Mirzā, published in Tehran only in 1346/1967. See also Fraser, J. B., Narrative of the Residence of the Persian Princes (London, 1838, 2 vol.Google Scholar, reprint in 1973). (f) Ajudānbāshi, mission in Europe (1838-1839), his sharh-e ma'muriyat-e Ajudānbāshi, published in Tehran only in 1347/1968. (g) Farrokh Khan Ghaffāry Amin-al dowle (1810-1871), mission in Europe (1856-1858), the publication of his Makhzan-al-vaqāye was forbidden for political reason by Nāser-al din Shāh; finally printed in Tehran in 1344/1965. (h) Momtahen-al dowle, student in France (1858-1868) his Khāterat, published in Tehran in 1353/1974. (i) Khānlar Khān E'tesām-al molk, twice in Europe between 1863 and 1870, diary published in Tehran in 1351/1972.

62. M. F. A. Akhundov, comedies, translated into French by L. Bazin (Paris, 1962). Best biography and study on him: Adamiyat, F., Andishehā-ye M. F. Ākhundzāde (Tehran, 1349/1970).Google Scholar Text of his plays “Tamsilāt” republished in Tehran, 1349/1970. List of his plays translated into foreign languages: F. Gaffary, “Secular Theatre,” in L. P. Elwell-Sutton (ed.), Bibliographical Guide to Iran, pp. 343-344. Also the good article of Algar, H., “Akundzāda,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1, fasc. 7, pp. 735–740.Google Scholar

63. Persian text of his plays in Sadiq, H., panj namāyeshnāme az Mirzā Āqā Tabrizi (Tehran, 2536/1977).Google Scholar A. Bricteux translated the plays into French, Les comédies de Malkom Khan (Liege et Paris, 1933).Google Scholar

64. Rezāzāde Malek, R., Susmār al dowle (Tehran, 1354/1975).Google Scholar

65. Safarnāme-ye Nāser al din shāh be Farang (Istanbul, 1291/1874)Google Scholar, published many times since then. English translation: The Diary of H. M. the Shah of Persia (London, 1874).Google Scholar

66. On Mozayan al dowle and Lemaire see Khāleqi, R. A., Sargozasht-e musiqi-ye Iran, 2nd ed. (Tehran, 1353/1974), Vol. 1.Google Scholar Lemaire went to Tehran in 1868 and stayed for more than 37 years.

67. For example, see the adapted translation of Molière's “George Dandin” by Mirzā Ja'far Qarājadāghi, ‘Arus va dāmād, ed. by B. Mo'meni (Tehran, 2537/1978).

68. M. Baktāsh's article in “Faslnāme-ye Teātr,” No. 5 (Tehran, Autumn 1357/1978.

69. Information in bulk (names of actors, writers, directors, titles and extracts) in A. Q. Jennati ‘Atā’i, Bonyād-e namāyesh dar Irān and E. Yarshater, Development of Persian Drama, op. cit. Also Gurān, H., Kusheshhāy-e nā farjām (Tehran, 1360/1981).Google Scholar

70. H. Gurān, op. cit.

71. Text of the plays in Kollyāt-e Mirzāde Eshqi, ed. Moshir Salimi, A. A. (Tehran, 1357/1978).Google Scholar A review of “Resurrection,” in R. A. Khāleqi, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 280-285.

72. Jamshidi, E., Hasan Moqaddam va Ja'far Khān az Farang āmade (Tehran, 1357/1978).Google Scholar

73. A list (till 1955) in A. Q. Jennati ‘Atā’i, op. cit.

74. See the English album: Festival of Arts of Shiraz - Persepolis. The First Ten Years (1967-76). Published in Tehran.

75. Concerning the Islamic revolution's attitude toward theater see Makhmalbāf, M., Qesse-nevisi va Namāyesh nāme-nevisi (Tehran, 1360/1962).Google Scholar