Hostname: page-component-7b7567c8c-wxvwp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-14T11:11:18.900Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Dynamics of New Englishes: From Identity Construction to Dialect Birth

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 February 2026

Edgar W. Schneider
Edgar W. Schneider*
Affiliation:
University of Regensburg
*
University of Regensburg, Department of English and American Studies, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany [edgar.schneider@sprachlit.uni-regensburg.de]
Get accessRights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

So-called new englishes, distinct forms of English which have emerged in postcolonial settings and countries around the globe, have typically been regarded individually, as unique varieties shaped by idiosyncratic historical conditions and contact settings, and no coherent theory to account for these processes has been developed so far. This article argues that despite all obvious dissimilarities, a fundamentally uniform developmental process, shaped by consistent sociolinguistic and language-contact conditions, has operated in the individual instances of rerooting the English language in another territory. At the heart of this process there are characteristic stages of identity construction by the groups involved, with similar relationships between the parties in migration contact settings (i.e. the indigenous population and immigrant groups, respectively) having resulted in analogous processes of mutual accommodation and, consequently, similar sociolinguistic and structural outcomes. Outlining a basic developmental scenario, I suggest that speech communities typically undergo five consecutive phases in this process—foundation exonormative stabilization, nativization, endonormative stabilization, and differentiation—and I describe the sociolinguistic characteristics of each one. This framework is then applied to case studies of seven different countries (Fiji, Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand) which, I argue, are currently positioned at different points along the developmental cycle.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Language , Volume 79 , Issue 2 , June 2003, pp. 233 - 281
Copyright
Copyright © 2003 by Linguistic Society of America

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Allsopp, Richard (ed.) 1996. Dictionary of Caribbean English usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Alsagoff, Lubna. 2001. Tense and aspect in Singapore English. In Ooi, 79–88.Google Scholar
Alsagoff, Lubna, Zhiming, Bao; and Wee, Lionel. 1998. Why you talk like that?: The pragmatics of a why construction in Singapore English. English World-Wide 19. 247–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anvil-Macquarie dictionary of Philippine English for high school. 2000. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing.Google Scholar
Ashcroft, Bill, Griffiths, Gareth; and Tiffin, Helen. 2002. The empire writes back. 2nd edn. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Asmah, Haji Omar. 1996. Post-imperial English in Malaysia. In Fishman, et al., 513–55.Google Scholar
Asmah, Haji Omar. 2000. From imperialism to Malaysianization: A discussion of the path taken by English towards becoming a Malaysian language. In Halimah & Ng, 12–21.Google Scholar
Australian Government Publishing Service. 1988. Style manual for authors, editors and printers. 4th edn. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy. 1997. When did Southern English begin? In Schneider 1997, vol. 1, 255–75.Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy, and Maynor, Natalie. 1989. The divergence controversy. American Speech 64. 12–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Richard W., and Görlach, Manfred (eds.) 1982. English as a world language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Baker, Sidney J. 1945[1978]. The Australian language. Sydney: Angus and Robertson Ltd. 1978. ++++++++++++3.d edn. Milson's Point, NSW: Currawong Press.Google Scholar
Bauer, Laurie. 1994. English in New Zealand. In Burchfield, 382–429.Google Scholar
Bauer, Laurie. 1997. Attempting to trace Scottish influence on New Zealand English. In Schneider 1997, vol. 2, 257–72.Google Scholar
Bauer, Laurie, and Bauer, Winifred. 2002. Can we watch regional dialects developing in colonial English? The case of New Zealand. English World-Wide 23. 169–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumgardner, Robert J. 1998. Word-formation in Pakistani English. English World-Wide 19. 205–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bautista, Maria Lourdes S. 1997a. The lexicon of Philippine English. In Bautista 1997b, 49–72.Google Scholar
Bautista, Maria Lourdes S. (ed.) 1997b. English is an Asian language: The Philippine context. Proceedings of the conference held in Manila on August 2–3, 1996. Sydney: Macquarie Library Ltd.Google Scholar
Bautista, Maria Lourdes S. 2000. The grammatical features of educated Philippine English. In Bautista, et al., 146–58.Google Scholar
Bautista, Maria Lourdes S., Llamzon, Teodoro A.; and Sibayan, Bonifacio P. (eds.) 2000. Parangal cang Brother Andrew: Festschrift for Andrew Gonzalez on his sixtieth birthday. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines.Google Scholar
Bell, Allan. 2000. Maori and Pakeha English: A case study. In Bell & Kuiper, 221–48.Google Scholar
Bell, Allan, and Kuiper, Koenraad (eds.) 2000. New Zealand English. Varieties of English around the world G25. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Benson, Phil. 2000. Hong Kong words: Variation and context. In Bolton 2000c, 373–80.Google Scholar
Biber, Douglas, Johansson, Stig, Leech, Geoffrey, Conrad, Susan; and Finegan, Edward. 1999. Longman grammar of spoken and written English. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Bibi Jan Ayyub, Mohd. 1994. Language issues in the Malay community. In Gopinathan, et al., 205–30.Google Scholar
Blair, David, and Collins, Peter (eds.) 2001. English in Australia. Varieties of English around the world G26. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Blake, Renée. 2002. Not as clear as black and white: A study of race, class and language in a Barbados community. New York: New York University, ms.Google Scholar
Bolton, Kingsley. 2000a. The sociolinguistics of Hong Kong English and the space for Hong Kong English. In Bolton 2000c, 265–85.Google Scholar
Bolton, Kingsley. 2000b. Hong Kong English, Philippine English, and the future of Asian Englishes. In Bautista, et al., 93–114.Google Scholar
Bolton, Kingsley (ed.) 2000c. Hong Kong English: Autonomy and creativity. Special issue of World Englishes 19.3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolton, Kingsley, and Lim, Shirley. 2000. Futures for Hong Kong English. In Bolton 2000c, 429–43.Google Scholar
Bradley, David. 1989. Regional dialects in Australian English phonology. In Collins & Blair 1989, 260–70.Google Scholar
Bradley, David, and Bradley, Maya. 2001. Changing attitudes to Australian English. In Blair & Collins, 271–85.Google Scholar
Bryant, Pauline. 1989. Regional variation in the Australian English lexicon. In Collins & Blair 1989, 301–14.Google Scholar
Bryant, Pauline. 1997. A dialect survey of the lexicon of Australian English. English World-Wide 18. 211–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burchfield, Robert (ed.) 1994. The Cambridge history of the English language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and overseas: Origins and development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Butler, Susan. 1997. Corpus of English in Southeast Asia: Implications for a regional dictionary. In Bautista 1997b, 103–24.Google Scholar
Butler, Susan. 2001. Australian English—an identity crisis. In Blair & Collins, 151–61.Google Scholar
Cahill, Rosemary. 1999. Solid English. Perth: Education Department of Western Australia.Google Scholar
Cassidy, Frederic G., and LePage, Robert B. 1980. Dictionary of Jamaican English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K. 1992. Dialect acquisition. Language 68.4.673–705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J. K. 2000. World enough and time: Global enclaves of the near future. American Speech 75. 285–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J. K. 2003. Sociolinguistic theory. 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K., and Trudgill, Peter. 1998. Dialectology. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheshire, Jenny (ed.) 1991. English around the world: Sociolinguistic perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Peter, and Blair, David (eds.) 1989. Australian English: The language of a new society. St. Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press.Google Scholar
Collins, Peter, and Blair, David. 2001. Language and identity in Australia. In Blair & Collins, 1–13.Google Scholar
Conrad, Andrew W. 1996. The international role of English: The state of the discussion. In Fishman, et al., 13–36.Google Scholar
Coppieters, René. 1987. Competence differences between native and non-native speakers. Language 63. 544–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crewe, William (ed.) 1977. The English language in Singapore. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.Google Scholar
Crystal, David. 1997. English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dako, Kari. 2001. Ghanaianisms: Towards a semantic and formal classification. English World-Wide 22. 23–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
David, Maya Khemlani. 2000. The language of Malaysian youth—an exploratory study. In Halimah & Ng, 64–72.Google Scholar
Davis, Lawrence M. 1983. English dialectology: An introduction. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
de Klerk, Vivian (ed.) 1996. Focus on South Africa. Varieties of English around the world G15. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Delbridge, Arthur. 1981. The Macquarie dictionary. Sydney: Macquarie Library.Google Scholar
Delbridge, Arthur. 2001. Lexicography and national identity: The Australian experience. In Blair & Collins, 303–16.Google Scholar
Dillard, Joey L. 1975. All-American English: A history of the English language in America. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. 2000. Linguistic variation as social practice: The linguistic construction of identity in Belten High. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Elmes, Simon. 2001. The routes of English 4. London: BBC Adult Learning.Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua A. 1972. The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach to language in society. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua A., Conrad, Andrew W.; and Rubal-Lopez, Alma (eds.) 1996. Post-imperial English: Status change in former British and American colonies 1840–1990. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foley, Joseph (ed.) 1988. New Englishes: The case of Singapore. Singapore: Singapore University Press.Google Scholar
Foley, Joseph A. 1998. Code-switching and learning among young children in Singapore. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 130. 129–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foley, Joseph A. 2001. Is English a first or second language in Singapore? In Ooi, 12–32.Google Scholar
Foley, Joseph A., Kandiah, T., Zhiming, Bao, Gupta, Anthea Fraser, Atsagoff, L., Lick, Ho Chee, Wee, L., Talib, T. S.; and Bokhorst-Heng, W. 1999. English in new cultural contexts: Reflections from Singapore. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Francis, W. Nelson. 1983. Dialectology: An introduction. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Frazer, Timothy C. (ed.) 1993. ‘Heartland’ English: Variation and transition in the American Midwest. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Giles, Howard. 1984. The dynamics of speech accommodation. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 46. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Gill, Saran Kaur. 1999. Standards and linguistic realities of English in the Malaysian workplace. World Englishes 18. 215–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, Saran Kaur. 2002. Language policy and English language standards in Malaysia: Nationalism versus pragmatism. Journal of Asia-Pacific Communication 12.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gisborne, Nikolas. 2000. Relative clauses in Hong Kong English. In Bolton 2000c, 357–71.Google Scholar
Gonzalez, Andrew. 1983. When does an error become a feature of Philippine English? In Noss, 150–72.Google Scholar
Gonzalez, Andrew. 1997. The history of English in the Philippines. In Bautista 1997b, 25–40.Google Scholar
Gopinathan, S. Anne Pakir, Kam, Ho Wah; and Saravanan, Vanithamani (eds.) 1994. Language, society and education in Singapore: Issues and trends. Singapore: Times Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, Elizabeth. 1998. The origins of New Zealand speech: The limits of recovering historical information from written records. English World-Wide 19. 61–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Elizabeth, and Abell, Marcia. 1990. ‘This objectionable colonial dialect’: Historical and contemporary attitudes to New Zealand speech. New Zealand ways of speaking English, ed. by Bell, Allen and Holmes, Janet, 21–48. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Gordon, Elizabeth, and Deverson, Tony. 1998. New Zealand English and English in New Zealand. Auckland: New House.Google Scholar
Görlach, Manfred. 1984. A selective bibliography of English as a world language (1965–1983). A bibliography of writings on varieties of English, 1965–1983, by Viereck, Wolfgang, Schneider, Edgar W., and Görlach, Manfred, 225–319. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Görlach, Manfred. 1991. English as a world language—the state of the art. Englishes, by Manfred Görlach, 10–35. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Görlach, Manfred. 1993. Part IV: Writings on Englishes in the rest of the world. A new bibliography of writings on varieties of English, 1984–1992/93, by Beat Glauser, Edgar W. Schneider, and Manfred Görlach, 125–80. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Görlach, Manfred. 1995a. Word-formation and the ENL: ESL: EFL distinction. More Englishes, by Manfred Görlach, 61–92. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Görlach, Manfred. 1995b. Dictionaries of transplanted Englishes. More Englishes, by Manfred Görlach, 124–63. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Görlach, Manfred. 1998. Recent dictionaries of varieties of English. Even more Englishes, by Manfred Görlach, 152–86. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Greenbaum, Sidney. 1996a. Introducing ICE. In Greenbaum 1996b, 3–12.Google Scholar
Greenbaum, Sidney (ed.) 1996b. Comparing English worldwide: The international corpus of English. Oxford: Clarendon.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grolier international dictionary: World English in an Asian context. 2000. Macquarie University, NSW: The Macquarie Library.Google Scholar
Gumperz, John J. (ed.) 1982. Language and social identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gumperz, John J., and Cook-Gumperz, Jenny. 1982. Introduction: Language and the communication of social identity. In Gumperz, 1–21.Google Scholar
Gupta, Anthea Fraser. 1988. A standard for written Singapore English? In Foley 1988, 27–50.Google Scholar
Gupta, Anthea Fraser. 1994. The step-tongue: Children's English in Singapore. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Gupta, Anthea Fraser. 1996. English and empire: Teaching English in nineteenth-century India. Learning English: Development and diversity, ed. by Mercer, Neil and Swann, Joan, 188–94. London: Open University.Google Scholar
Gupta, Anthea Fraser. 1997. Colonisation, migration, and functions of English. In Schneider 1997, vol. 1, 47–58.Google Scholar
Gupta, Anthea Fraser. 1999. The situation of English in Singapore. In Foley, et al., 106–26.Google Scholar
Halimah Mohd Said and Siew, Ng Keat (eds.) 2000. English is an Asian language: The Malaysian context. Kuala Lumpur: Macquarie Library.Google Scholar
Hall, Robert A. 1962. The life cycle of pidgin languages. Lingua 11. 151–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazen, Kirk. 2002. Identity and language variation in a rural community. Language 78. 240–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, Raymond (ed.) 2003. The legacy of colonial Englishes: Transported dialects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hock, Hans Henrich, and Joseph, Brian D. 1996. Language history, language change, and language relationship: An introduction to historical and comparative linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Holm, John. 1988/89. Pidgins and creoles. Vol. 1: Theory and structure. Vol. 2: Reference survey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Horvath, Barbara M. 1985. Variation in Australian English: The sociolects of Sydney. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Horvath, Barbara M., and Horvath, Ronald J. 1997. The geolinguistics of a sound change in progress: /l/ vocalization in Australia. Working papers in linguistics: A selection of papers from NWAVE 25, ed. by Meyerhoff, Miriam, Boberg, Charles, and Strassel, Stephanie, 105–24. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Horvath, Barbara M., and Horvath, Ronald J. 2001. The geolinguistics of short /a/ in Australian English. In Blair & Collins, 341–56.Google Scholar
Hundt, Marianne. 1998. New Zealand English grammar: Fact or fiction? A corpus-based study in morphosyntactic variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Hung, Tony T. N. 2000. Towards a phonology of Hong Kong English. In Bolton 2000c, 337–56.Google Scholar
Hyland, Ken. 1997. Language attitudes at the handover: Communication and identity in 1997 Hong Kong. English World-Wide 18. 191–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, Richard. 1996. Social identity. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jourdan, Christine. 2001. Pijin: A dictionary of the pidgin of the Solomon Islands. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
Kachru, Braj B. 1985. Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures, ed. by Quirk, Randolph and Widdowson, Henry G., 11–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and The British Council.Google Scholar
Kachru, Braj B. 1986. The alchemy of English: The spread, functions, and models of non-native Englishes. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Kachru, Braj B. (ed.) 1992. The other tongue: English across cultures. 2nd edn. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Kachru, Braj B. 1994. English in South Asia. In Burchfield, 497–553.Google Scholar
Kachru, Braj B. 1997. English as an Asian language. In Bautista 1997b, 1–23.Google Scholar
Kroskrity, Paul V. 2001. Identity. Key terms in language and culture, ed. by Duranti, Alessandro, 106–9. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Kuiper, Koenraad, and Bell, Allan. 2000. New Zealand and New Zealand English. In Bell & Kuiper, 1–22.Google Scholar
Labov, William. 1972. Sociolinguistic patterns. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Labov, William, Ash, Sharon; and Boberg, Charles. Forthcoming. Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, phonology and sound change. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Project website: http://www.uni-marburg.de/linguistik/dgweb/atlas/index.htm.Google Scholar
Le Page, Robert B., and Tabouret-Keller, Andrée. 1985. Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Li, David C. S. 1999. The functions and status of English in Hong Kong: A post-1997 update. English World-Wide 20. 67–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, Choon Yeoh, and Wee, Lionel. 2001. Reduplication in Singapore English. In Ooi, 89–101.Google Scholar
Lim, Lisa. 2001. Ethnic group varieties of Singapore English: Melody or harmony? In Ooi, 53–68.Google Scholar
Llamzon, Teodoro A. 1986. Life cycle of New Englishes: Restriction phase of Filipino English. English World-Wide 7. 101–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llamzon, Teodoro A. 1997. The phonology of Philippine English. In Bautista 1997b, 41–48.Google Scholar
Lloyd, T. O. 1984. The British empire 1558–1983. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Luke, Kwang-Kwong, and Richards, Jack C. 1982. English in Hong Kong: Functions and status. English World-Wide 3. 47–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macquarie Junior Dictionary. World English—Asian context. 1999. Macquarie University, NSW: Macquarie Library.Google Scholar
Malcolm, Ian. 1995. Language and communication enhancement for two-way education. Perth: Edith Cowan University and Education Department of Western Australia.Google Scholar
Malcolm, Ian, and Koscielecki, Marek M. 1997. Aboriginality and English. Report to the Australian Research Council. Perth: Center for Applied Language and Literacy Research, Edith Cowan University.Google Scholar
Malcolm, Ian G., and Rochecouste, Judith. 2000. Event and story schemas in Australian Aboriginal English discourse. English World-Wide 21. 261–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malcolm, Ian, Haig, Yvonne, Königsberg, Patricia, Rochecouste, Judith, Collard, Glenys, Hill, Alison; and Cahill, Rosemary. 1999a. Towards more user-friendly education for speakers of Aboriginal English. Perth: Center for Applied Language and Literacy Research, Edith Cowan University.Google Scholar
Malcolm, Ian, Haig, Yvonne, Königsberg, Patricia, Rochecouste, Judith, Collard, Glenys, Hill, Alison; and Cahill, Rosemary. 1999b. Two-way English: Towards more user-friendly education for speakers of Aboriginal English. Perth: Center for Applied Language and Literacy Research, Edith Cowan University.Google Scholar
Mathews, Mitford M. 1951. A dictionary of Americanisms on historical principles. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McArthur, Tom. 1998. The English languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milroy, James, and Milroy, Lesley. 1985. Authority in language. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milroy, Leslie. 2002. Social networks. The handbook of language variation and change, ed. by Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, Peter, and Schilling-Estes, Natalie, 549–72. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Mitchell, A. G., and Delbridge, Arthur. 1965. The speech of Australian adolescents: A survey. Sydney: Angus and Robertson.Google Scholar
Moag, Rodney F. 1992. The life cycle of non-native Englishes: A case study. In Kachru 1992, 233–52.Google Scholar
Modiano, Marko, Toolan, Michael, Simo-Bobda, Augustin, Todd, Loreto, Kaye, Alan S., Chevillet, Francois; and Tripathi, Prayag D. 1999. International English in the global village. English Today 58, 15.2.22–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, Michael. 1996. Was colonial American English a koiné? Speech past and present: Studies in English dialectology in memory of Ossi Ihalainen, ed. by Klemola, Juhani, Kytö, Merja, and Rissanen, Matti, 213–35. Frankfurt a.M.: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Moore, Bruce. 2001. Australian English and indigenous voices. In Blair & Collins, 133–49.Google Scholar
Morais, Elaine. 2000. Talking in English but thinking like a Malaysian: Insights from a car assembly plant. In Halimah & Ng, 90–106.Google Scholar
Morais, Elaine. 2001. Lectal varieties of Malaysian English. In Ooi, 33–52.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. 1996. The founder principle in creole genesis. Diachronica 13. 83–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. 2000. Creolization is a social, not a structural, process. In Neumann-Holzschuh & Schneider, 65–84.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. 2001. The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mugler, France, and Tent, Jan. 1998. Some aspects of language use and attitudes in Fiji. SICOL: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Oceanic Linguistics. Vol. 1: Language contact, ed. by Tent, Jan and Mugler, France, 109–34. Pacific Linguistics C-141. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
Mühlhäusler, Peter. 1986. Pidgin and creole linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid, and Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.) 2000. Degrees of restructuring in creole languages. (Creole language library 22.) Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Newbrook, Mark. 1997. Malaysian English: Status, norms, some grammatical and lexical features. In Schneider 1997, vol. 2, 229–56.Google Scholar
Newbrook, Mark. 2001. Syntactic features and norms in Australian English. In Blair & Collins, 113–32.Google Scholar
Ngefac, Aloysius. 2001. Extra-linguistic correlates of Cameroon English phonology. Yaounde, Cameroon: University of Yaounde dissertation.Google Scholar
Norton, Bonny. 2000. Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Noss, R. B. (ed.) 1983. Varieties of English in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Singapore University Press for SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.Google Scholar
Ooi, Vincent B. Y. (ed.) 2001. Evolving identities: The English language in Singapore and Malaysia. Singapore: Times Academic Press.Google Scholar
Orsman, Elizabeth, and Orsman, Harry. 1994. The New Zealand dictionary. Educational edition. Takapuna: New House.Google Scholar
Orsman, Harry. 1997. A dictionary of New Zealand English on historical principles. Auckland: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pakir, Anne (ed.) 1993. The English language in Singapore: Standards and norms. Singapore: Singapore Association for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Pakir, Anne. 1994. English in Singapore: The codification of competing norms. In Gopinathan, et al., 92–118.Google Scholar
Pakir, Anne. 2001. The voices of English-knowing bilinguals and the emergence of new epicentres. In Ooi, 1–11.Google Scholar
Peng, Long, and Setter, Jane. 2000. The emergence of systematicity in the English pronunciations of two Cantonese-speaking adults in Hong Kong. English World-Wide 21. 81–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennycook, Alastair. 1998. English and the discourses of colonialism. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Peters, Pam. 1995. The Cambridge Australian English style guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Peters, Pam. 2001. What is international English? Paper given to the Australian Style Council Conference, Sydney, April 2001.Google Scholar
Phillipson, Robert. 1992. Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Piller, Ingrid. 2001. Who, if anyone, is a native speaker? Anglistik 12. 109–21.Google Scholar
Platt, John, and Weber, Heidi. 1980. English in Singapore and Malaysia: Status, features, functions. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Platt, John, Weber, Heidi; and Ho, Mian Lian. 1983. Singapore and Malaysia. Varieties of English Around the World T1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Platt, John, Weber, Heidi; and Ho, Mian Lian. 1984. The New Englishes. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Prendergast, David. 1998. Views on Englishes: A talk with Braj B. Kachru, Salikoko Mufwene, Rajendra Singh, Loreto Todd, and Peter Trudgill. Links and Letters 5. 225–41.Google Scholar
Pride, John (ed.) 1982. New Englishes. Rowley: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Quinn, Heidi. 2000. Variation in New Zealand English syntax and morphology. In Bell & Kuiper, 173–97.Google Scholar
Ramson, W. S. 1966. Australian English: An historical study of the vocabulary 1788–1898. Canberra: Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Ramson, W. S. 1988. The Australian national dictionary. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Read, Allen Walker. 1933. British recognition of American speech in the eighteenth century. Dialect Notes 6. 313–34.Google Scholar
Rubal-Lopez, Alma. 1996. The ongoing spread of English: A comparative analysis of former Anglo-American colonies with non-colonies. In Fishman, et al., 37–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saravanan, Vanithamani. 1994. Language maintenance and language shift in the Tamil community. In Gopinathan, et al., 175–204.Google Scholar
Schilling-Estes, Natalie, and Wolfram, Walt. 1999. Alternative models of dialect death: Dissipation vs. concentration. Language 75. 486–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmied, Josef. 1985. Englisch in Tansania. Sozio- und interlinguistische Probleme. Heidelberg: Groos.Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. (ed.) 1997. Englishes around the world. Vol. 1: General studies, British Isles, North America. Vol. 2: Caribbean, Africa, Asia, Australasia. Studies in honour of Manfred Görlach. Varieties of English around the world G18, G19. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. 1999. Notes on Singaporean English. Form, function and variation in English: Studies in honour of Klaus Hansen, ed. by Carls, Uwe and Lucko, Peter, 193–205. Frankfurt a.M: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. 2000a. Feature diffusion vs. contact effects in the evolution of New Englishes: A typological case study of negation patterns. English World-Wide 21. 201–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. 2000b. From region to class to identity: ‘Show me how you speak, and I'll tell you who you are?’ American Speech 75. 359–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schumann, John H. 1978. The acculturation model for second-language acquisition. Second language acquisition and foreign language teaching, ed. by Gringas, Rosario C., 27–50. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Sibayan, Bonifacio P., and Gonzalez, Andrew. 1996. Post-imperial English in the Philippines. In Fishman, et al., 139–72.Google Scholar
Siegel, Jeff. 1987. Language contact in a plantation environment: A sociolinguistic history of Fiji. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Siegel, Jeff. 1991. Variation in Fiji English. In Cheshire, 664–74.Google Scholar
Singapore Census of Population 2000. Online: http://www.singstat.gov.sg/keystats/people.html#census.Google Scholar
Singh, Rajendra (ed.) 1998. The native speaker: Multilingual perspectives. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Spencer, John (ed.) 1971. The English language in West Africa. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Stubbe, Maria, and Holmes, Janet. 2000. Talking Maori or Pakeha in English: Signalling identity in discourse. In Bell & Kuiper, 249–78.Google Scholar
Sussex, Roland. 1989. The Americanisation of Australian English: Prestige models in the media. In Collins & Blair 1989, 158–68.Google Scholar
Talib, Ismail S. 2002. The language of postcolonial literatures: An introduction. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, Hwee Hwee. 2002. A war of words over ‘Singlish’. Time Asia 160.3, July 29.Google Scholar
Tan, Peter K. W. 2001. Melaka or Malacca; Kallang or Care-Lang: Lexical innovation and nativisation in Malaysian and Singaporean English. In Ooi, 140–67.Google Scholar
Tay, Mary. 1982. The phonology of educated Singapore English. English World-Wide 3. 135–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tay, Mary W. J., and Gupta, Anthea Fraser. 1983. Towards a description of Standard Singaporean English. In Noss, 173–89.Google Scholar
Tent, Jan. 2000a. The dynamics of Fiji English: A study of its use, users and features. Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago dissertation.Google Scholar
Tent, Jan. 2000b. English lexicography in Fiji. English Today 63, 16.3.22–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tent, Jan. 2001a. A profile of the Fiji English lexis. English World-Wide 22. 209–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tent, Jan. 2001b. Yod deletion in Fiji English: Phonological shibboleth or L2 English? Language Variation and Change 13. 161–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tent, Jan. 2001c. The current status of English in Fiji. Who's centric now? The present state of post-colonial Englishes, ed. by Moore, Bruce, 241–68. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tent, Jan, and Mugler, France. 1996. Why a Fiji corpus? In Greenbaum 1996b, 249–61.Google Scholar
Thomason, Sarah G. 2001. Language contact: An introduction. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Thomason, Sarah Grey, and Kaufman, Terrence. 1988. Language contact, creolization and genetic linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tickoo, Makhan L. 1996. Fifty years of English in Singapore: All gains, (a) few losses? In Fishman et al., 431–55.Google Scholar
Times-Chambers essential English dictionary. 1997. 2nd edn. Singapore: Federal Publications.Google Scholar
Tongue, R. K. 1974. The English of Singapore and Malaysia. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 1986. Dialects in contact. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 1998. World English: Convergence or divergence? The major varieties of English, ed. by Lindqvist, Hans, Klintborg, Staffan, Levin, Magnus, and Estling, Maria, 29–36. Växjö: Acta Wexionensia, and Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter, and Hannah, Jean. 1982. International English: A guide to varieties of Standard English. London: Arnold.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter, Gordon, Elizabeth, Lewis, Gillian; and Maclagan, Margaret. 2000. Determinism in new-dialect formation and the genesis of New Zealand English. Journal of Linguistics 36. 299–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsui, Amy B. M., and Bunton, David. 2000. The discourse and attitudes of English language teachers in Hong Kong. In Bolton 2000c, 287–303.Google Scholar
Turner, George W. 1966. The English language in Australia and New Zealand. London: Longmans.Google Scholar
Turner, George W. 1994. English in Australia. In Burchfield, 277–327.Google Scholar
Verhaar, John W. M. 1995. Toward a reference grammar of Tok Pisin. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Wells, John. 1982. Accents of English. 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wodak, Ruth, de Cillia, Rudolf, Reisig, Martin; and Liebhart, Karin. 1999. The discoursive construction of national identity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt, and Schilling-Estes, Natalie. 1996. Dialect change and maintenance in a post-insular community. Focus on the USA, ed. by Schneider, Edgar W., 103–48. Varieties of English around the world G16. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Woodward, Kathryn. 1997. Concepts of identity and difference. Identity and difference, ed. by Woodward, Kathryn, 8–48. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Wurm, Stephen A. 1985. Handbook of Tok Pisin. Canberra: Australian National University, Department of Linguistics.Google Scholar
Yule, Henry, and Burnell, A. C. 1986 [orig. 1886]. Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical, and discursive. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Zuraidah, Mohd Don. 2000. Malay + English → a Malay variety of English vowels and accent. In Halimah & Ng, 35–45.Google Scholar