Hostname: page-component-74656f9884-j7cmm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-08T17:10:57.332Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Against Creole exceptionalism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 February 2026

Michel DeGraff
Michel DeGraff*
Affiliation:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
*
Department of Linguistics and Philosophy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139-4307 [degraff@mit.edu]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'

Information

Type
Discussion Note
Information
Language , Volume 79 , Issue 2 , June 2003 , pp. 391 - 410
Copyright
Copyright © 2003 by Linguistic Society of America

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adam, Lucien. 1883. Les idiomes Négro-Aryen et Maléo-Aryen. Essai d'hybridologie linguistique. Paris: Maisonneuve et cie.Google Scholar
Alleyne, Mervyn. 1988. Roots of Jamaican culture. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Arends, Jacques. 2001. Simple grammars, complex languages. Linguistic Typology 5.2.180–82.Google Scholar
Baissac, Charles. 1880. Étude sur le patois Créole mauricien. Nancy: Imprimerie Berger-Levrault et Cie.Google Scholar
Begley, Sharon. 1982. The fossils of language. Newsweek, March 15, 1982, p. 80.Google Scholar
Bellegarde, Dantès. 1934. Un haïtien parle. Port-au-Prince: Chéraquit.Google Scholar
Bellegarde, Dantès. 1949. La langue française et le créole haïtien. Conjonction. Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Haïti 19. 39–43.Google Scholar
Bellegarde-Smith, Patrick. 1985. In the shadow of powers: Dantès Bellegarde in Haitian social thought. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.Google Scholar
Bellegarde-Smith, Patrick. 1990. Haiti: The breached citadel. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Berreby, David. 1992. Kids, Creoles, and the coconuts. Discover, April 1992, p. 44.Google Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. 1981. Roots of language. Ann Arbor: Karoma.Google Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. 1984a. The language bioprogram hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7.2.173–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. 1984b. The language bioprogram hypothesis: Creole is still king (Author's response to commentaries). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7.2.212–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. 1988. Creole languages and the bioprogram. In Newmeyer, 268–84.Google Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. 1990. Language and species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. 1999. How to acquire language without positive evidence: What acquisitionists can learn from Creoles. In DeGraff 1999e, 49–74.Google Scholar
Bloomfield, Leonard. 1922. Review of the The owl sacred pack of the Fox Indians, by Truman Michelson. American Journal of Philology 43. 276–81.Google Scholar
Bloomfield, Leonard. 1933. Language. New York: H. Holt and Co.Google Scholar
Boas, Franz. 1911. Handbook of American Indian languages. Part 1. (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40.) Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Bouquet, Simon. 1997. Introduction à la lecture de Saussure. Paris: Éditions Payot and Rivages.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1980 [1990]. Le sens pratique. Paris: Editions de Minuit. 1990. Trans. by Richard Nice: The logic of practice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1982 [1991]. Ce que parler veut dire: L'économie des échanges linguistiques. Paris: Fayard. 1991. Ed. by Thompson, John B., trans. by Raymond, Gino and Adamson, Matthew: Language and symbolic power. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre, and Wacquant, Loïc. 1992. An invitation to reflexive sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Brathwaite, Kamau. 1971. The development of Creole society in Jamaica. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Cameron, Deborah, Frazer, Elizabeth; and Harvey, Penelope. 1992. Researching language: Issues of power and method. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Césaire, Aimé. 1978. Entretien avec Aimé Césaire par Jacqueline Leiner. Tropiques vol. 1, ed. by Césaire, Aimé and Ménil, René, v–xxiv. Paris: Editions Jean Michel Place.Google Scholar
Chafe, Wallace L. 1976. American Indian languages and American linguistics: The Second Golden Anniversary Symposium of the Linguistic Society of America, held at the University of California, Berkeley, on November 8 and 9, 1974. Lisse: Peter de Ridder.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaudenson, Robert. 1992. Des îles, des hommes, des langues. Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Chaudenson, Robert, and Mufwene, Salikoko. 2001. Creolization of language and culture. [English translation and revision of Chaudenson 1992.] London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1964. Current issues in linguistic theory. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1966. Cartesian linguistics: A chapter in the history of rationalist thought. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1975. The logical structure of linguistic theory. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1993. Year 501: The conquest continues. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1997. Chomsky no Brasil. Chomsky in Brazil (Revista de Documentação de Estudoes em Lingüística Teórica e Aplicada 13). São Paulo: EDUC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 2000. New horizons in the study of language and mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corcoran, Christine. 2001. Creoles and the creation myth: A report on some problems with the linguistic use of ‘Creole’. Chicago Linguistic Society 36.2.193–206.Google Scholar
d'Ans, André-Marcel. 1968. Le Créole français d'Haïti. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Davis, David Brion. 1966 [1988]. The problem of slavery in Western culture. 2nd edn. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Davis, David Brion. 1975. The problem of slavery in the age of revolution. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1994a. Review of The clausal determiners of Haitian and Fon (Travaux de Recherche sur le Créole Haïtien, no. 8), ed. by Lefebvre, Claire (Université du Québec à Montréal, 1992). Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 9. 370–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1994b. Review of Word order and possession in relexification (Travaux de Recherche sur le Créole Haïtien, no. 10), ed. by Lefebvre, Claire (Université du Québec à Montréal, 1992). Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 9. 376–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1997. Verb syntax in creolization (and beyond). The new comparative syntax, ed. by Haegeman, Liliane, 64–94. London: Longman.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1999a. Creolization, language change and language acquisition: A prolegomenon. In DeGraff 1999e, 1–46.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1999b. Creolization, language change and language acquisition: An epilogue. In DeGraff 1999e, 473–543.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1999c. Empirical quicksand: Probing two recent articles on Haitian Creole. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 14. 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1999d. Parameter-setting in acquisition and through creolization and language change. The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences, ed. by Wilson, Rob and Keil, Frank, 624–27. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1999e. Language creation and language change: Creolization, diachrony and development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2000. A propos des pronoms objets dans le créole d'Haïti: Regards croisés de la morphologie et de la diachronie. Langages 138. 89–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2001a. Morphology in Creole genesis: Linguistics and ideology. Ken Hale: A life in language, ed. by Kenstowicz, Michael, 53–121. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2001b. On the origin of Creoles: A Cartesian critique of ‘Neo‘-Darwinian linguistics. Linguistic Typology 5.2.213–310.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2003a. Linguists' most dangerous myth: The fallacy of Creole exceptionalism. Language in Society, to appear.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2003b. Morphology and word order in ‘creolization’ and beyond. Handbook of comparative syntax, ed. by Kayne, Richard and Cinque, Guglielmo. New York: Oxford University Press, to appear.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2003c. On Creole genesis and language acquisition. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, to appear.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2003d. Relexification: A reevaluation. Anthropological Linguistics, to appear.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2003e. Postcolonial linguistics: The politics of Creole studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT, ms. [To be published, London: Blackwell].Google Scholar
Dejean, Paul. 1993. Haïti: Alerte, on tue! Montréal: CIDIHCA.Google Scholar
Dejean, Yves. 1975. Dilemme en Haïti: Français en péril ou péril français? New York: Éditions Connaissance d'Haïti.Google Scholar
Dejean, Yves. 1993. An overview of the language situation in Haiti. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 102. 73–83.Google Scholar
Dejean, Yves. 1997. Alphabétisation: Mythes et réalités. Port-au-Prince, Haïti: Lemète Zéphyr.Google Scholar
Dejean, Yves. 1999. L'archipel nous revient: Créolistes et données. Études Créoles 22.2.85–114.Google Scholar
Dejean, Yves. 2003. Créole, école, rationalité. Chemins Critiques, to appear.Google Scholar
Delorme, Demesvar. 1870. Les théoriciens au pouvoir. Paris: Plon.Google Scholar
Descartes, René. 1637 [1962]. Discours de la méthode . . . Leyden: I. Maire. 1962. Trans. by John Veitch: Discourse on method. La Salle, IL: Open Court.Google Scholar
Devonish, Hubert. 1986. Language and liberation: Creole language politics in the Caribbean. London: Karia Press.Google Scholar
Dreifus, Claudia. 2001. How language came to be, and change. The New York Times, October 30, 2001, ‘Science Times’ section, p. D3.Google Scholar
Fattier, Dominique. 1998. Contribution à l'étude de la genèse d'un Créole: L'Atlas linguistique d'Haïti, cartes et commentaires. Aix: Université de Provence dissertation. (Distributed by Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France.).Google Scholar
Epstein, Samuel, Flynn, Suzanne; and Martohardjono, Gita. 1996. Second language acquisition: Theoretical and experimental issues in contemporary research (followed by commentaries and by authors' response). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19.4.677–758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1969 [1972]. L'Archéologie du savoir. Paris: Gallimard. 1972. Trans. by A. M. Sheridan Smith: The archaeology of knowledge and the discourse on language. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1980. Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 1972–1977. Ed. and trans. by Colin Gordon et al. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Gilbert, Glenn. 1980. Pidgin and Creole languages: Selected essays by Hugo Schuchardt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Girod-Chantrans, Justin. 1785 [1980]. Voyage d'un Suisse dans différentes colonies d'Amérique .... Neuchâtel: Imprimerie de la société typographique. 1980. Paris: Libraire Jules Tallandier.Google Scholar
Gould, Stephen Jay. 1996. The mismeasure of man. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Greenfield, William. 1830. A defence of the Surinam Negro-English version of the New Testament. London: Samuel Bagster.Google Scholar
Haas, Mary. 1976. Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. In Chafe, 59–69.Google Scholar
Hale, Ken. 1972. Some questions about anthropological linguistics: The role of native knowledge. Reinventing anthropology, ed. by Hymes, Dell, 382–97. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Hale, Ken. 1973. The role of American Indian linguistics in bilingual education. Bilingualism in the Southwest, ed. by Turner, Paul, 203–25. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Hale, Ken. 1976. Theoretical linguistics and American Indian communities. In Chafe, 35–50.Google Scholar
Hale, Ken. 1992. Language endangerment and the human value of linguistic diversity. Language 68.1.35–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hale, Ken. 2001. Ulwa (Southern Sumu): The beginnings of a language research project. Linguistic fieldwork, ed. by Newman, Paul and Ratliff, Martha, 76–101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Robert Jr. 1953. Haitian Creole: Grammar, texts, vocabulary. The American anthropologist. Memoir 74. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association.Google Scholar
Harris, Zellig. 1951. Structural linguistics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hegel, Hegel Georg Wilhelm. 1836 [1956]. Vorlesungen über die geschichte der philosophie. Berlin: Duncker und Humblot. 1956. Trans. by J. Sibree: The philosophy of history. New York: Dover Publications.Google Scholar
Hockett, Charles. 1955. A manual of phonology. Baltimore: Waverly Press.Google Scholar
Hockett, Charles. 1958. A course in modern linguistics. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, Léon François. 1984. Francophilia and cultural nationalism in Haiti. Haiti—today and tomorrow: An interdisciplinary study, ed. by Foster, Charles and Valdman, Albert, 57–76. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.Google Scholar
Humboldt, Wilhelm von. 1836 [1988]. Über die verschiedenheit des menschlichen sprachbaues und ihren einfluss auf die geistige entwickelung des menschengeschlechts. 1988. Trans. by Peter Heath: On language: The diversity of human language-structure and its influence on the mental development of mankind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hymes, Dell (ed.) 1971. Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hymes, Dell. 1976. The Americanist tradition. In Chafe, 11–28.Google Scholar
Jespersen, Otto. 1922. Language: Its nature, development and origin. London: G. Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Klein, Thomas. 2001. Conflicting trends in Creole syllable structure: Evidence from Haitian morphophonology. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, Coimbra, Portugal, 27 June 2001.Google Scholar
Koerner, Konrad. 1983. Linguistics and evolutionary theory: Three essays by August Schleicher, Ernest Haeckel and Wilhelm Bleek. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Larousse, Pierre. 1869. Grand dictionnaire universel du xix siècle. Paris: Larousse.Google Scholar
Lefebvre, Claire. 1998. Creole genesis and the acquisition of grammar: The case of Haitian Creole. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Markey, T. L. 1979. The ethnography of variation: Selected writings on pidgins and creoles, by Hugo Schuchardt. Ed. and trans. by T. L. Markey. Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma.Google Scholar
McWhorter, John. 1998. Identifying the Creole prototype: Vindicating a typological class. Language 74. 788–818.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McWhorter, John. 2001. The world's simplest grammars are Creole grammars. Linguistic Typology 5.2.125–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meijer, Gus, and Muysken, Pieter. 1977. On the beginnings of pidgin and creole studies: Schuchardt and Hesseling. Pidgin and creole linguistics, ed. by Valdman, Albert, 21–45. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Meillet, Antoine. 1912 [1958]. L'évolution des formes grammaticales. Scientia: Revista di scienza 12. 384–400. Reprinted in Meillet 1958, 130–48.Google Scholar
Meillet, Antoine. 1924 [1951]. Introduction à la classification des langues. Les langues du mondes, ed. by Meillet, Antoine and Cohen, Marcel. Paris: Champion. Reprinted in Meillet 1951, 53–69.Google Scholar
Meillet, Antoine. 1929 [1951]. Le développement des langues. Continu et discontinu, ed. by Chevalier, Jacques, 119–31. Paris: Bloud & Gay. Reprinted in Meillet 1951, 71–83.Google Scholar
Meillet, Antoine. 1951. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale, vol. 2. Paris: Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Meillet, Antoine. 1958. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale, vol. 1. Paris: Honoré Champion.Google Scholar
Métellus, Jean. 1997. What is an intellectual? (Interview). Haïtiens aujourd'hui, 12/97–1/98, 2.1.11–26.Google Scholar
Métellus, Jean. 1998. The process of creolization in Haiti and the pitfalls of the graphic form. Caribbean creolization: Reflections on the cultural dynamics of language, literature and identity, ed. by Balutansky, Kathleen and Sourieau, Marie-Agnès, 118–28. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Montagu, Ashley. 1942 [1997]. Man's most dangerous myth: The fallacy of race. 6th edn. London: AltaMira Press.Google Scholar
Mooney, Carolyn. 2000. On Martinique. Elevating the status of Creole. Chronicle of Higher Education, June 6, 2000.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. 2000. Creolization is a social, not a structural, process. Degrees of restructuring in Creole languages, ed. by Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid and Schneider, Edgar, 65–84. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. 2001. The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. 2002. What do creoles and pidgins tell us about the evolution of language? Paper presented at the conference Origine et évolution des langues: Approaches, modèles, paradigmes, Collège de France, 26–27 September 2002.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. 2003. Genetic linguistics and genetic creolistics. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, to appear.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mühleisen, Susanne. 2002. Creole discourse. Exploring prestige formation and change across Caribbean English-lexicon Creoles. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Muysken, Pieter. 1988. Are Creoles a special type of language? In Newmeyer, 285–301.Google Scholar
Muysken, Pieter, and Law, Paul. 2001. Creole studies: A theoretical linguist's field guide. Glot International 5.2.47–57.Google Scholar
Newmeyer, Frederick. 1988. Linguistics. The Cambridge survey, vol. 2: Linguistic theory: Extensions and implications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Osthoff, Hermann, and Brugmann, Karl. 1878 [1967]. Preface to Morphological investigations in the sphere of the Indo-European languages 1. Leipzig: S. Hirzel. 1967. In A reader in nineteenth century historical Indo-European linguistics, ed. and trans. by Winfred Lehmann, 197–209. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Parkvall, Mikael. 2001. Creolistics and the quest for creoleness. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 16. 147–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, Hermann. 1890 [1970]. Principien der sprachgeschichte. 1970. Trans. by H. A. Strong: Principles of the history of language. College Park, MD: McGrath Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Pelleprat, Father Pierre. 1655 [1965]. Relation des missions des pères de la Compagnie de Jésus dans les iles et dans la terre ferme de l'Amérique Méridionale. Paris: Chez Sébastien Cramoisy and Gabriel Cramoisy. 1965. Trans.: Relato de las misiones de los padres de la Compañía de Jesús en las islas y en tierra firme de América Meridional. Caracas: Fuentes para la Historia Colonial de Venezuela.Google Scholar
Popkin, Richard. 1974. The philosophical bases of modern racism. Philosophy and the civilizing arts, ed. by Walton, Craig and Anton, John, 126–65. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Posner, Rebecca. 1985. Creolization as typological change: Some examples from Romance syntax. Diachronica 2.2.167–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Poyen-Bellisle, René. 1894. Les sons et les formes du Créole dans les Antilles. (University of Chicago dissertation.) Baltimore: J. Murphy and Co.Google Scholar
Price, Richard, and Price, Sally. 1991. Two evenings in Saramaka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Price-Mars, Jean. 1928 [1983]. Ainsi parla l'oncle: Essais d'ethnographie. Port-au-Prince, Haïti: Imprimerie de Compiegne. Price-Mars, Jean. 1983. Trans. by Magdaline Shannon: So spoke the uncle. Washington, DC. Three Continents Press.Google Scholar
Prudent, Lambert-Félix. 1980. Des baragouins à la langue antillaise: Analyse historique et sociolinguistique du discours sur le créole. Paris: Editions Caribéennes.Google Scholar
Reinecke, John. 1980. William Greenfield, a neglected pioneer creolist. Studies in Caribbean language, ed. by Carrington, Lawrence, 1–12. Saint-Augustine, Trinidad: Society for Caribbean Linguistics.Google Scholar
Said, Edward. 1979. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Saint-Quentin, Alfred de. 1872 [1989]. Introduction à l'histoire de Cayenne . . . , with Étude sur la grammaire Créole by Auguste de Saint-Quentin. Antibes: J. Marchand. 1980. Cayenne: Comité de la Culture, de l'Éducation et de l'Environnement, Région Guyane.Google Scholar
Samarin, William. 1967. Field linguistics: A guide to linguistic field work. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson.Google Scholar
Samarin, William. 1980. Standardization and instrumentalization of Creole languages. Theoretical orientations in Creole studies, ed. by Valdman, Albert and Highfield, Arnold, 213–36. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward. 1921. Language: An introduction to the study of speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward. 1933. Language. Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences 9. 155–69.Google Scholar
Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1916 [1986]. Cours de linguistique générale. Paris: Payot. 1983. Trans. by Roy Harris: Course in general linguistics. La Salle, IL: Open Court.Google Scholar
Schleicher, August. 1863 [1869]. Die Darwinsche theorie und die sprachwissenschaft. Weimar: Hermann Böhlau. 1869. Trans. by Alex Bikkers: Darwinism tested by the science of language. London: John Camden Hotten. Reprinted in Koerner, 1–73.Google Scholar
Schuchardt, Hugo. 1914. Die sprache Der Saramakkaneger in Surinam. Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe Reeks. 14.6. Amsterdam: Johannes Müller. [Preface translated into English in Markey 1979, 73–108, Gilbert 1980, 89–126].Google Scholar
Schwartz, Bonnie, and Sprouse, Rex. 1996. L2 cognitive states and the full transfer/full access model. Second Language Research 12.1.40–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seuren, Pieter. 1998. Western linguistics: An historical introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seuren, Pieter, and Wekker, Herman. 1986. Semantic transparency as a factor in Creole genesis. Substrata versus universals in Creole genesis, ed. by Muysken, Pieter and Smith, Norval, 57–70. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slobin, Dan. 2003. From ontogenesis to phylogenesis: What can child language tell us about language evolution? Biology and knowledge revisited: From neurogenesis to psychogenesis, ed. by Langer, Jonas, Parker, Sue, and Milbrath, Constance. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, to appear.Google Scholar
Sylvain, Suzanne. 1936. Le Créole Haïtien: Morphologie et syntaxe. Belgique: Wetteren, Imprimerie de Meester.Google Scholar
Thomas, John Jacob. 1869. The theory and practice of Creole grammar. Port-of-Spain, Trinidad: Chronicle Publishing Office.Google Scholar
Thomason, Sarah. 2002. Creoles and genetic relationship. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 17. 101–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomason, Sarah, and Kaufman, Terrence. 1988. Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trouillot, Hénock. 1980. Les limites du créole dans notre enseignement. Port-au-Prince, Haïti: Imprimerie des Antilles.Google Scholar
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. 1990. Haiti: State against nation. The origins and legacy of Duvalierism. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 1971. Review of Le Créole francais d'Haïti, by André-Marcel d'Ans (1968). International Journal of American Linguistics 38.7.202–8.Google Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 1978. Le créole: Structure, statut et origine. Paris: Éditions Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 1979. La situation linguistique en Haïti. Études Créoles 2.2.95–106.Google Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 1987. Le cycle vital créole et la standardisation du créole haïtien. Etudes Créoles 10.2.107–25.Google Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 1992. Aspects de l'enseignement du créole comme langue étrangère et langue seconde. Etudes Créoles 15.2.81–94.Google Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 2000. L'évolution du lexique dans les créoles à base lexicale française. L'Information Grammaticale 85. 53–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 2001a. Le sentiment linguistique natif dans l'analyse de la variation phonologique en créole haïtien. Leçons d'Afrique: Hommage à Gabriel Manessy. Collection Afrique et Langage 2, ed. by Nicolai, Robert, 529–42. Louvain: Peeters.Google Scholar
Valdman, Albert. 2001b. Sur les processus lexicogénétiques du créole haïtien. Linguistik als kulturwissenschaft. Festschrift für Bernd Spillner zum 60. Geburstag, ed. by Schröder, Hartmut, Kumschlies, Petra, and González, María, 43–53. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Védrine, Emmanuel. 2002. An annotated bibliography on Haitian Creole: A review of publications from colonial times to 2000. Boston: E.W. Védrine Creole Project.Google Scholar
Vinson, Julien. 1889. Créoles. Dictionnaire des sciences anthropologiques, ed. by Bertillon, Adolphe al, et., 345–47. Paris: Doin.Google Scholar
Whinnom, Keith. 1971. Linguistic hybridization and the ‘special case’ of pidgins and creoles. In Hymes 1971, 91–115.Google Scholar