¹ Compare BD xxi–xxiv, NPH, PHP.

² High tone is unmarked in phonemic writing, the sign ´ being used only in giving tone in formulae.

³ This palatalization is a more front position of the consonant but has no strong offglide as does the speech described by others (HD xix, xx, BD xxii [n. 5], MGSH 4, PHP, NPH 723).

⁴ Compare particularly NPH 723, 724.

⁵ Compare NPH 725, PH 3, HG 178, 179, MGSH 3, WHS x, xi. On another analysis, perhaps preferable, /p/ and /f/ would be separate phonemes. /p/ would be a defective phoneme, occurring only before vowels. Certain morphemes would have alternants with /p/ and /f / as optional or limited variants.

⁶ Compare HG 8, l and r. See also SH 58 fn. 1, NPH 725, MGSH 3, 4.

⁷ BD xxii (n. 8), see other examples given there also; PH 4, MGSH 4.

⁸ Stress may fall on an anaptyctic vowel: ki´rkii [5kı'ɍ^ilki. The length of the vowels (preceding and anaptyctic) is affected and the statement of vowel length would undoubtedly be modified in some details by a careful study of the stress. The presence or absence of the anaptyctic vowel should also be more narrowly defined. It is absent, for example, in halšèè ‘tongue’ (but kilšì with anaptyctic vowel).

⁹ Compare LH 4 (and fn. 1).

¹⁰ The system of vowel length was worked out with contrasting pairs, and the results as set forth here were applied to other examples. The length of a vowel as given in brackets is not an impressionistic one, but an interpretation from the phonemic or semi-phonemic recording. Final vowel lengths are also re-interpretations in some instances. Examples were re-checked with an informant when possible. The phonetic difference between identical phonemic lengths has been occasionally noted by others. For example, see BD under da: of da II (daà) he says ‘a very long vowel’ but of da III (dàà) ‘vowel not so long as in da II’.

¹¹ Compare BD xxvii–xxviii, PH 4–8, 129–132, MGHS 137–142, ISH 3, HT.

¹² Compare MGSH 100–105, ISH 66–68.

¹³ Compare Bloch, Language 22.201–202 in regard to pauses in Japanese.

¹⁴ Compare MGSH 141–142, PH 5, 6, 8–13.

¹⁵ The following additional initial clusters with /w/ or /y/ are given in Bargery (BD) as from Katsina: /bw/ bwiya (given as buuya by my informant), /bˀw/ bˀwalanbˀwantani, /cw/ cwai, /fy/ fyace, /lw/ lwacˀi /nw/ nwai, /rw/ rwagga, /ṛw/ rwabbe. Others, not labelled as from Katsina, are: /by/ byallam, /bˀy/ bˀyasa, /fw/ fwatta, /hw/ hwi, /hy/ hyade, /jw/ jwai, /mw/ mwimwi, /ny/ nyar.

¹⁶ Even should /p/ and /f/ be separate phonemes, probably only one (/f/) occurs phonemically in -CC- or as -C. Examples of both are given here due to the unsettled nature of the question.

¹ bar- is replaced by baṛ before / # /. The resulting baṛ is used throughout the paradigm, even when suffixes in close juncture follow.

² A pronoun chart based on Abraham (MGSH) may be added for comparison :

1. 1.

   1. nii — šii — — — — — — ˀita kay — kee — muu kuu suu —

2. 2.

   2. — — — — — — y — — — — — — — — — —

3. *3.

   *3. naa — — — — yaa — — — taa — kyaa — maa kwaa saa ˀaa

4. 4.

   4. — — — — — — — — kin — mun kun sun ˀan

³ This is the form used after kadà.

⁴ See MA.

⁵ The distinction between nà and na- (tà and ta-) is based mainly on the words nagàri, tagàri, nàgàṛtaa. The difference in tone apparently supports the distinction maintained in MA, but the two may be the same (or may be differentiated on different grounds). The difference should not be pressed without further study.

⁶ Compare SH 79, 80.

⁷ The final low of -eè goes to the -nee or -cee, which otherwise has the opposite tone to that of the preceding morpheme final.

¹ This discussion has not taken into consideration variation in noun tone patterns: Compare PH 33, 34, MGSH 18, 19. The two nouns noted with all low tones (?àbù, màcèè) are ?àbu, màcee when before pause and before nee, cee. Before na, ?àbù is replaced by ?àbi. Such changes may well be relegated to Chapter 2 as phonologic phenomena or morpheme alternants. No observable regularity was noted to distinguish adverbial use of nouns, though tone varied in some cases: gìdaa, gidaa. Ordinarily tone phrase juncture precedes a noun used adverbially.

References in this chapter are mainly to Abraham (PH, MGSH). Most other works neglect tone, some even vowel length or other vital phonemic matters.

² The terminology here should not be confused with that of Abraham. Only Abraham's verbal noun of mutable verbs (PH 73, 74, MGSH 25) is here considered a verbal noun. The verbal noun of an unchanging verb (PH 65–67, MGSH 22) is considered a verb form, to be treated in the syntax as regards its nominal functions. Abraham clearly distinguishes the two, of course. Abraham's ‘extra’ or ‘secondary verbal noun’ (PH 138–145, MGSH 25, see also 55–58) is my deverbal noun. However, the latter also includes Abraham's ‘Agent’, ‘Tool’, ‘Place’ (MGSH 62–63) and the ‘Past Participle’ (MGSH 48).

³ Compare PH 34, 35, MGSH 61.

⁴ Compare PH 43, MGSH 50.

⁵ Compare HG 63–64, PH 36, 37, MGSH 59, 60, GHL 13, 14.

⁶ Compare PH 23, 29, MGSH 45, 46, GHL 19, 50, 52, LHS 8–20, 22, 23, 26, 48–50.

⁷ Compare BD xxviii–xxix.

⁸ These sequences would undoubtedly be changed in part and enlarged by further research (compare LHS 19, 20, where examples of further affixes, plurals of, -taka are given).

Previous discussions of affixes have been organized according to meaning—abstract, feminine, plural, etc. References have been given for abstract and feminine formations. For plurals see GHL 20–44, 50, 52 and for plurals of deverbal nouns 37, 38 (a large collection of formatives, unfortunately without tone or vowel length), HG 60–63, MGSH 39–41, BD xxviii–xxix (tone), LHS 8–20, 22, 23, 26, 48–50, WHS xviii–xx. For a suffix -di to numerals see GHL 64.

¹ Compare PH 89,90. On verb formatives in general see also LHS 55, 56, GHL 101–116 (very poor), WHS xxi–xxiii.

² Compare MGSH 27–29, LHS pp. 52–54. There is also a good deal in PH, e.g. 105, 112, 113ff.

³ Single prefixes and suffixes here stand for whole paradigms (see 2.3.3).

⁴ It should be added that the value of the longer examples is uneven as regards tone phrase juncture. Many have no junctures marked where checking would reveal several. In general there is a juncture before a verb (i.e. between adverb or noun subject and verb) and before an adverb or prepositional phrase after the verb.