¹ ‘Poetic Diction’, The journals and papers of Gerard Manley Hopkins, ed. by Humphry House and Graham Storey, 84 (London, 1959).

² Robert Lowth, Isaiah ² x—xi (London, 1779). Cf. also his De sacra poesia hebraeorum (Oxford, 1753). Lowth's doctrine inspired not only further research but also poetry. Christopher Smart's parallelistic poem of 1759–63 ‘represents an attempt to adapt to English verse some of the principles of Hebrew verse expounded by Bishop Robert Lowth’, as William H. Bond points out in his edition of Smart's Jubilate agno 20 (London, 1954).

³ Louis I. Newman and William Popper, Studies in biblical parallelism, Parts 1, 2 (University of California, 1918).

⁴ See particularly Harold L. Ginsberg, ‘The Rebellion and Death of Ba'lu’, Orientalia (N. S.) 5:2 (1936); idem, ‘The Legend of King Keret’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Supplementary Studies, Nos. 2–3 (1946); William F. Albright, ‘The Old Testament and the Canaanite language and literature’, Catholic Biblical Quarterly 7 (1945); idem, 'A catalogue of early Hebrew lyric poems (Psalm LXVIII)', The Hebrew Union College Annual, 23:1 (1950–1); idem, 'The Psalm of Habakkuk', Studies in Old Testament prophecy presented to Theodore H. Robinson (Edinburgh, 1950) ; Frank M. Cross and David N. Freedman, ‘The blessing of Moses’, Journal of Biblical Literature 47:3 (1948); Frank M. Cross, ‘Notes on a Canaanite Psalm in the Old Testament’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 117 (1950); Stanley Gevirtz, Patterns in the early poetry of Israel (Chicago, 1963).

⁵ John Francis Davis, ‘Poeseos Sinensis Comentarii’, Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2.410–19 (1830).

⁶ Lowth also brought to notice that in biblical pairs of lines which are neither equivalent nor opposite in terms ‘there is a parallelism equally apparent, and almost as striking, which arises from the similar form and equality of the lines, from the correspondence of the members and the construction’ (xxv).

⁷ See e.g. Marie Jean Léon Hervay-Saint-Denis, Poésies de l'époque Thang, traduites du chinois ... avec une étude sur l'art poétique en Chine (Paris, 1862); Gustave Schlegel, La loi du parallélisme en style chinois démontrée par la préface du 'Si-yü-ki' (Leiden, 1896); B. Tchang Tcheng-Ming, Le parallélisme dans les vers du Chen King (Changhai-Paris, 1937).

⁸ James Robert Hightower, ‘Some characteristics of parallel prose’, Studia Serica Bernhard Karlgren (Copenhagen, 1959).

⁹ Professor Hightower has graciously provided me with a detailed English summary of Kūkai's list.

¹⁰ Cf. Heinrich Lausberg, Handbuch der literarischen Rhetorik, 1. §750: similitudo (Munich, 1960).

¹¹ Peter A. Boodberg, ‘On crypto-parallelism in Chinese poetry’ and ‘Syntactical metaplasia in stereoscopic parallelism’, Cedules from a Berkeley Workshop in Asiatic Philology, # #001–540701 and 017–541210 (Berkeley, Calif., 1954–5).

¹² Johann Gottfried Herder, Vom Geist der ebräischen Poesie 23 (Dessau, 1782).

¹³ Eduard Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa ⁵ 2.816 f. (Darmstadt, 1958).

¹⁴ Janusz Chmielewski, ‘Notes on early Chinese logic’, Rocznik Orientalistyczny 28:2.87–111 (1965).

¹⁵ Witold Jabłoński, Les ‘Siao-ha(i-eu)l-yu’ de Pékin—Un essai sur la poésie populaire en Chine 20 f. (Cracow, 1935).

¹⁶ Cf. R. Jakobson and M. Halle, Fundamentals of language 76 ff. (The Hague, 1956).

¹⁷ Jan Gonda, Stylistic repetition in the Veda (Amsterdam, 1959).

¹⁸ See W. L. Steinhart, Niassche teksten (Bandung, 1937).

¹⁹ Wolfgang Steinitz, ‘Der Parallelismus in der finnisch-karelischen Volksdichtung’, FF Communications, No. 115, §4 (Helsinki, 1934).

²⁰ Erik Cajanus, Linguarum ebraeae et finnicae convenientia 12 f. (Åbo, 1697); Daniel Juslenius, ‘Oratio de convenientia linguae Fennicae cum Hebraea et Graeca’, Schwedische Bibliothek 1.163 (1728): ‘Inprimis notabilis est Hebraicorum et Fennorum carminum concentus, consistens qua poësin in Periodi cujusvis divisione in duo Hemistichia, quorum posterius variata phrasi, sensum cum priori continet eundem, vel etiam emphatikóteron. Si vero contingit plura poni membra, aut partium est enumeratio, aut gradatio orationis.‘ These observations were further developed by Henrik Gabriel Porthan, De poesi fennica (Helsinki, 1766–8).

²¹ August Ahlqvist, Suomalainen runousoppi kielelliseltä kannalta (Helsinki, 1863); a revised and improved version—‘Suomalainen runo-oppi‘—entered into the author's Suomen kielen rakennus 1 (Helsinki, 1877).

²² Op. cit. and Ostjakische Volksdichtung und Erzählungen aus zwei Dialekten, 1 (Tartu, 1939), 2:1 (Stockholm, 1941).

²³ Robert Austerlitz, ‘Ob-Ugric metrics’, FF communications, No. 174.8 (Helsinki, 1958). Cf. its reviewer's ‘procedural query’ against the eschewing of ‘semantic criteria’ in the ‘analysis of structural recurrence and parallelism’ : John L. Fischer, Journal of American Folklore 72.339 f. (1960).

²⁴ Dell H. Hymes, Anthropos 55.575 (1960).

²⁵ John Lotz, ‘Kamassian Verse’, Journal of American Folklore 67.374–6 (1954).

²⁶ Tadeusz Kowalski, ‘Ze studjów nad form, poezji ludów tureckich’, Mémoires de la Commission orientale de l'Académie polonaise des sciences et des lettres, No. 5 (Cracow, 1921) ; V. M. Žirmunskij, ‘Ritmiko-sintaksičeskij parallelizm kak osnova drevnetjurkskogo narodnogo èpičeskogo stixa’, Voprosy jazykoznanija 13:4 (1964), and a German version of the latter paper: Viktor Schirmunski, ‘Syntaktischer Parallelismus und rhythmische Bindung im alttürkischen epischen Vers’, Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft, Volkskunde und Literaturforschung—Steinitz Festschrift (Berlin, 1965).

²⁷ V. M. Žirmunskij, ‘Oguzskij geroičeskij èpos i “Kniga Korkuta” ‘, Kniga moego deda Korkuta: oguzskij geroičeskij èpos, ed. by Žirmunskij and A. N. Kononov (Moscow-Leningrad, 1962).

²⁸ Nikolaus Poppe, ‘Der Parallelismus in der epischen Dichtung der Mongolen’, Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher 30.195–228 (1958).

²⁹ In the folklore of other Slavic peoples parallelism occupies a much more restricted place, notwithstanding its relevance in certain poetic genres such as the Ukrainian dumy or South Slavic lyric songs; cf. Herbert Peukert, Serbokroatische und makedonische Volkslyrik 146–58 (Berlin, 1961).

³⁰ ‘Kalevala, finskaja jazyčeskaja èpopeja’, Biblioteka dlja čenija 55:7.33–65 (1842). In surveying the content of Finnish folk songs and noting the difficulty of their translation, this article, as Mrs. Dagmar Kiparsky has kindly brought to our attention, reproduces Xavier Marmier's outline ‘De la poésie finlandaise’, Revue des Deux Mondes 32.68–96 (1842); but the latter gives no comparative study of parallelism and confines his observations on this Finnish device to the following brief remark: ‘Ces vers sont, en outre, composés en grande partie par un procédé de parallélisme, c'est-à-dire que le second vers de chaque strophe répète en d'autres termes ou représente avec d'autres nuances la pensée ou l'image tracée dans le premier, et il y a parfois dans ces deux vers, qui sont comme le double écho d'un même sentiment, qui se fortifient l'un par l'autre, et s'en vont sur la même ligne sans se confondre, un charme indéfinissable et impossible à rendre’ (96).

³¹ The Scandinavian analogue cited apparently concerns alliteration only.

³² A. A. Olesnickij, ‘Rifm i metr v vetxozavetnoj poèzii’, Trudy Kievskoj duxovnoj akademii 3.564–6 (1872).

³³ S. N. Šafranov, ‘O sklade narodno-russkoj pesennoj reči, rassmatrivaemoj v svjazi s napevami’, Žurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveščenija 199–205:2 (1878–9).

³⁴ M. P. Štokmar, Issledovanija v oblasti russkogo narodnogo stixosloženija 116 (Moscow' 1952).

³⁵ V. M. Žirmunskij, Rifma, ee istorija i teorija 263–96 (St. Petersburg, 1923).

³⁶ R. Jakobson, ‘Linguistics and poetics’, Style in language, ed. by Thomas A. Sebeok, 369 f. (Cambridge, Mass., 1960); idem, ‘Poèzija grammatiki i grammatika poèzii’, Poetics Poetyka Poètika 401 f. (Warsaw, 1961), which discusses a Russian folk parody of the parallelistic style ('Foma and Erëma') and the promotion of antithetic parallelism between lines into the pivot of a ballad plot ('Vasilij and Sofija').

³⁷ Anastasija P. Evgen'eva, Očerki po jazyku russkoj ustnoj poèzii v zapisjax XVII-XX vv. 277–81 (Leningrad, 1963).

³⁸ A. P. Evgen'eva and B. N. Putilov (ed.), Drevnie rossijskie stixotvorenija sobrannye Kiršeju Danilovym 256, 474 (Leningrad, 1958). Cf. the editors' commentaries on this collection and its only preserved copy, dating from the end of the eighteenth century, 514–65, 575–86.

³⁹ See P. K. Simoni, Povest' o Gore i Zločastii = Sbornik Otd. rus. jaz. i slov. I. Akad. Nauk 83:1 (1907). My quotations refer to the text restored on pp. 74–88.

⁴⁰ V. F. Ržiga, ‘Povest’ o Gore i Zločastii i pesni o Gore', Slavia 10 (1931).

⁴¹ V. I. Dal', Tolkovyj slovar' živogo velikorusskogo jazyka ² 4.276 (St. Petersburg-Moscow, 1882).

⁴² There is a substantial difference between the pervasive, canonical parallelism in the Russian oral tradition and the optional parallelistic constructions which occur in Old Russian literature, partly under the influence of the Psalter. Cf. D. S. Lixačev, ‘Stilističeskaja simmetrija v drevnerusskoj literature’, Problemy sovremennoj filologii (Moscow, 1965).

⁴³ Samuel R. Driver, An introduction to the literature of the Old Testament 364 (New York, 1922).

⁴⁴ About Gore as ‘a mythological creature’ in the Povest' and in songs see N. I. Kostomarov, 'O mifičeskom značenii Gorja-Zločastija', Sovremennik 59:10.113–24 (1856), and William Harkins, ‘The mythic element in the tale of Gore-Zločastie’, For Roman Jakobson 201–12 (The Hague, 1956). The two synonyms gore ‘grief’ and zločastie ‘misfortune’ are bound by the conjunction i ‘and’ in the title of the Povest‘ merely to reinforce the meaning of the pair : 292 A mne, górju i zločástiju, ne v pusté že žít’. Cf. A. P. Evgen'eva, op.cit. 271. The second synonym is in apposition to the former (273 podslúšalo góre-zločástie; 394 utéšil on góre-zločástie), changeable into an epithet—378, 438, 463 góre zločástnoe—or inversely—351 zločástie gorínskoe—or into a simple adjective: 298, 315 Ino ZLo to gore IZLukavilos‘ and 432 a čto ZLOe gore napered’ ZašLO. On the other hand, coupled synonyms split easily into two independent personae: 280 i já ix, góre, peremúdrilo, 281 učinísja im zločástie velíkoe; or 288 i já ot nix, góre, minoválosja, 289 a zločástie na ix v [sic] mogíle ostálosja.

⁴⁵ Austerlitz, 80, outlines an ‘important sub-class’ of unpaired lines ‘which contain the etymological figure’.

⁴⁶ See A. B. Nikitina, ‘Iz vospominanij Anatolija Mariengofa’, Russkaja literatura 7:4.158 (1964).

⁴⁷ Their difference with regard to Chinese has been aptly discussed by Janusz Chmielewski, ‘Jezyk starochiński jako narzedzie rozumowania’, Sprawozdania z prac naukowych Wydziału I PAN, 125 ff. (1964). Cf. Tchang Tcheng-Ming, op.cit. 78–83.

⁴⁸ Both Lowth, xx, in application to the Proverbs of Solomon, and following him Davis, 412, with regard to Chinese maxims, observed that antithetic parallelism 'is peculiarly adapted ... to adages, aphorisms, and detached sentences.' Their 'elegance, acuteness, and force', according to Lowth, ‘arise in a great measure from the Antithetic form, the opposition of diction and sentiment.‘

⁴⁹ Cf. Heinrich Lausberg, Handbuch der literarischen Rhetorik 1. §§259, 586–8 (Munich, 1960); J. Gonda, op. cit. 93 ff.

⁵⁰ Cf. in Kirša's bylina on Vol'x Vseslav'evič: A vtápory knjagínja ponós poneslá, ‖ ponós poneslá i ditjá rodilá. Šafranov compares this construction to a link of a chain which is in contact with both the foregoing and the following ring (85).

⁵¹ Another paronomastic association—linking three odd hemistichs—may be suspected here : 2/avgór'e/ ~ 3 /nagómu/ - 5 /gr'ívna/. In this connection Saussure's precept might be recalled: 'Mais si ce doute peut à tout instant s'élever, de ce qui est le mot-thème et de ce qui est le groupe répondant, c'est la meilleure preuve que tout se répond d'une manière ou d'une autre dans les vers ...'; see Jean Starobinski, 'Les anagrammes de Ferdinand de Saussure', Mercure de France 255 (1964).

⁵² Herrman Weyl, Symmetry 43 (Princeton, 1952) defines this device as ‘reflexive congruence’.

⁵³ The older form in the Povest', 409 /d'et'át'i/, must have belonged to the original version of this line.

⁵⁴ Opredelenie attributivno-predikativnoe, in terms of A. A. Šaxmatov, Sintaksis russkogo jazyka ² 393 f. (Leningrad, 1941).

⁵⁵ A. M. Peškovskij, Russkij sintaksis v naučnom otnošenii ⁷ 381 f. (Moscow, 1956), would ascribe to the infinitive clauses in 2–3 ‘a connotation of subjective necessity’ and in 6–11 ‘a connotation of objective necessity’.

⁵⁶ See R. Jakobson, Selected writings 1.535 (The Hague, 1962).

⁵⁷ V. I. Varencov, Sbornik russkix duxovnyx stixov 131 (St. Petersburg, 1860).

⁵⁸ A. I. Sobolevskij, Velikorusskie narodnye pesni 1.533, 536 (St. Petersburg, 1895).

⁵⁹ F. M. Istomin and G. O. Djutš, Pesni russkogo naroda 60 (St. Petersburg, 1894).

⁶⁰ See A. B. Šapiro, Očerki po sintaksisu russkix narodnyx govorov 71 (Moscow, 1953).

⁶¹ Another possible conjecture is a góre préžde <da v> vék zašél ‘and grief came beforehand and forever’ ; then the parallelism of the hemistichs would rest on the two temporal adverbs préžde and vvék (vovék? navék?). Cf. the corresponding expression in the Povest', 437 ne na čáas ja k tebe góre zločástnoe privjazálosja, and in the lyrico-epic song of the grief cycle recorded by A. F. Hilferding, Onežskie byliny ², 2 No. 177 (St. Petersburg, 1896) : i ne na čás ja k tebe góre privjazálosi and a j tut ná vek góre rosstaválosi.

⁶² Cf. the allusion in the Povest': at the feast the lad was seated 181 ne v ból‘šee mesto, ne v mén‘šee.

⁶³ Robert Austerlitz, ‘Parallelismus’, Poetics Poetyka Poètika (Warsaw, 1961), states: ‘Die Spannung, welche zwischen synonymen oder antonymen Parallelwörtern herrscht, verleiht dem Text eine Art von semantischen Rhythmus’ (441). The tension between parallelled synonyms and antonyms plays in turn an effective part.

⁶⁴ Cf. R. Jakobson, Selected writings 4.434 ff. (The Hague, 1965).

⁶⁵ See A. M. Seliščev, Dialektologičeskij očerk Sibiri 137 (Irkutsk, 1920): róstit', etc., and S. P. Obnorskij, Imennoe sklonenie v sovremennom russkom jazyke 1.244 (Leningrad, 1927): kónja; kónju. A dialectal stress on the desinence is most probable in 14 močalámi; cf. Obnorskij, 2.384 ff. (Leningrad, 1931).

⁶⁶ Cf. Jakobson, op. cit. 425 ff.

⁶⁷ Franz Miklosich, ‘Die Darstellung im slavischen Volksepos’, Denkschriften der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Philos.-hist. Cl., 38:3.7 f. (1890).

⁶⁸ See, e.g., Marcel Jousse, Études de psychologie linguistique—Le style oral rythmique et mnémotechnique chez les verbo-moteurs, Ch. X, XII, XV-XVIII (Paris, 1925); Gevirtz, op. cit. 10.

⁶⁹ Cf. Claude Lévi-Strauss, La pensée sauvage (Paris, 1962).

⁷⁰ A. N. Veselovskij, ‘Psixologičeskij parallelizm i ego formy v otraženijax poètičeskogo stilja’, Poètika 1.130–225 (St. Petersburg, 1913).

⁷¹ V. Ja. Propp, Morfologia skazki (Leningrad, 1928). English: Morphology of the folktale (Bloomington, Ind., 1958).

⁷² Alfred Bertholet, ‘Zur Stelle Hohes Lied 4⁸‘, Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 33:18.47–53 (1918).

⁷³ W. F. Albright, ‘The Psalm of Habakkuk’, 7 (see above).

⁷⁴ Cf. Jakobson, ‘Linguistics and poetics’, 355 (see above): ‘Orientation toward the addkessee, the conative function, finds its purest grammatical expression in the vocative and imperative.‘

⁷⁵ P. V. Šejn, Velikorus v svoix pesnjax, obrjadax, obyčajax, verovanijax, skazkax, legendax, No. 1659 (St. Petersburg, 1900).

⁷⁶ Cf. Lausberg, op. cit. §737: an isocolon modeled upon the scheme q(a¹b¹/a²b²) where q designates ‘den klammerartigen gemeinsamen Satzteil’.

⁷⁷ R. Jakobson, ‘Signe zéro’, Mélanges de linguistique offerts à Charles Bally 148 f. (Genève, 1939).

⁷⁸ Op. cit., 363. ‘Climactic’ parallelism, as Driver, who launched this term, defines it, appears to be a mere combination of the repetitive form with the above-cited form which in the second line ‘completes’ the first one. Thus in the example he quotes from Ps. 29.8, 'The voice of the Lord shaketh the wilderness; ‖ The Lord shaketh the wilderness of Kadesh,' the initial part of the second line catches up the end part of the first line and adds 'of Kadesh'. The repetitive device may be confined either to an anadiplosis, as in the above example, or to an anaphora as in the other instances of ‘climactic’ parallelism adduced by Driver. The broader conception of the climactic form in C. F. Burney's edition of The Book of Judges 169 ff. (London, 1918) will be discussed from a linguistic standpoint by the present author in a different context.

⁷⁹ B. M. and Ju. M. Sokolov, Skazki i pesni belozerskogo kraja, Song No. 73 (Moscow, 1915).

⁸⁰ R. Jakobson, O češskom stixe 105 (Berlin-Moscow, 1923).

⁸¹ Cf. ‘Lettres de Ferdinand de Saussure à Antoine Meillet’ published by Émile Benveniste, Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure 21.110 (1964): ‘Il est d'emblée accordé que l'on peut se rattraper pour un couple sur le vers suivant, et même sur l'espace de plusieurs vers.‘