page 6 note 1 By ‘symbol’ is meant a word, a word-group or a part of a word, e.g. this, in virtue of, -er as in baker. By ‘rule’ is meant any procedure not involving the use of an explicit symbol, e.g. word-order.

page 7 note 2 1, sandale. 2, sang. 3, tourner les sangs à quelqu'un. 4, sans peur. 5, dansant. 6, les chiens dansants. 7, Saint-Saens. 8, Samson. 9, s'immisçant dans les affaires publiques. 10, ascendant. 11, incandescent. 12, des fils incandescents. 13, semblant. 14, sensible. 15, sens dessus dessous. 16, Il se sent bien. 17, centime. 18, encens. 19, mil neuf cent douze. 20, des hommes décents.

page 8 note 3 Under the direction of Dr. Edward L. Thorndike, a six years' investigation of the rate of progress in learning the ‘synthetic’ languages Esperanto and Ido was conducted by Dr. Laura Hall Kennon. The conclusion was reached that 'On the whole, with expenditures of from ten to a hundred hours, the achievement in the synthetic language will probably be from five to fifteen times that in a natural language, according to the difficulty of the latter.' (Language Learning, by Division of Psychology, Institute of Educational Research, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York City, 1933, page 7.)

page 10 note 4 It is estimated that almost a million people use or understand some one of the six constructed languages that have attracted public attention. In comparison with Esperanto the dissemination of the other languages is slight, but it has an influence which is not negligible. Some data regarding the use of Esperanto may be of interest.

This language has been used as the only language for discourses, discussions, and theatrical performances during 28 Esperanto ‘World Congresses’, some of them attended by several thousand persons from over thirty nations. In recent years it has been used also as a language of translation at some international conferences on education and on religion.

Esperanto courses have been given—according to statistics collected by IALA's information bureau—in 1141 schools in 40 countries. The bureau has registered further the names of 8,481 teachers in 67 countries who know Esperanto. It has found no record of courses in any other constructed language in schools except a few sporadic instances of Ido.

In the year ending April 30, 1936, according to statistics published in The British Esperantist, over 800 program items in Esperanto, including announcements, talks, and 14 courses, were broadcast from 20 head stations in 12 countries.

There are over 5000 publications in Esperanto, including scientific articles, translations of standard writings, and original works.

page 11 note 5 As an intermediary in passing from one ethnic language to another, for various news articles in over twenty countries, the use of Esperanto is giving satisfaction.

As a basis for general language study Esperanto has been used in experimental courses in ten schools in the United States with pupils of from 11 to 15 years of age. The text book was General Language Course, Helen S. Eaton, Banks Upshaw and Co., Dallas, Texas, 1934.

In some cases Esperanto has been used as an introduction to other languages, notably in the Bishop Auckland Girls' County Secondary School where for many years its study has been obligatory as an introduction to French and German.

page 11 note 6 Pronounced ee-ah-lah.

page 12 note 7 The first section of one of the studies was published in the yearbook of the Committee on Modern Language Teaching, in 1934. It is a Comparative Frequency List covering the first thousand words in available frequency lists in English, French, German, and Spanish, by Helen S. Eaton. The final list, nearing completion, will cover the first six thousand words.

page 12 note 8 Totality, E. Sapir, Linguistic Society of America, Monograph No. VI, 1930.

The expression of the ending-point relation in English, French, and German, E. Sapir and M. Swadesh, edited by A. V. Morris, Linguistic Society of America, Monograph No. X, 1932.

page 20 note 1 See O. Jespersen, Kortfattet Engelsk Grammatik, 2nd edition, Copenhagen, 1897, page 42.

page 23 note 2 When we combine this and that as this and that, this or that, we are aware of a distinction between at least two items. We avoid specifying the items either from indifference on our own part, from the assumption of a similar state of mind in our listener or from imprecise recollection, e.g. 'We spoke of this and that', 'He asked me this and that', 'If you are a member of this or that body'. German uses similarly 'Man sprach von diesem und jenem', 'Er fragte mich dieses und jenes', 'Ich habe ihm das und das gesagt', etc. To produce an effect of a tedious cumulation and hence occasionally of the speaker's impatience we sometimes add and the other, e.g. ‘I took this, that, and the other remedy for my cold, but none of them did me any good’. In French it is usually sufficient to use ceci et cela. There is in colloquial German a combination of three indicaters when a question like 'Was hast du in den Ferien getan?' elicits the reply 'So dies und das und allerlei' in which the speaker is too bored to mention details or wishes to put off in a bantering way a person who is too inquisitive. German does not appear to differentiate as English does between this and that and this or that. In English the tendency is to use this and that in a factual situation, e.g. 'On going through your work I found this and that point requiring elucidation' in contrast with ‘As you go through my work I should like you to draw my attention to this or that (this, that, or the other) point requiring elucidation’. French sometimes expresses this idea by tel et tel, e.g. ‘Tel et tel vous dira que’ (That and that person will tell you). Cf. further Appendix B.

page 25 note 3 The difference between each and every is discussed by Sapir in Totality, p. 12, and here in the chapter on Indication applied to Quantity (see p. 79).

page 30 note 4 Cf. the French use of 'Quelqu'un!' (English 'Shop!') to summon a shopkeeper to a customer or 'Il y a quelqu'un!' (English 'Engaged!') to warn anyone trying to enter a 'cabinet', both examples from Mansion.

page 31 note 5 We have a kind of intermediate indicater between some and any in the phrase 'some a or other' or 'one a or another'. When referring to a particular it seems either to express ignorance or conceal knowledge and so put off an unwelcome questioner, e.g. 'Who came?' 'Oh, some one or other, never mind!' (a certain person). If we say 'Go and fetch some one or other' we imply that there may be more than one fulfilling an implicit condition and it does not matter which. Perhaps we may call it an 'evasive' indicater.

page 35 note 1 For this use of a W. E. Johnson employs the term ‘instantial’ indefinite, op. cit., p. 88.

page 42 note 2 The terms particular and universal are indefinable. Take particular as an instance belonging to a class constituted by a universal. Take universal to be that quality shared by particulars which constitutes them a class. Used as an adjective in such a sentence as ‘Shall I meet you at a particular time and particular place?‘ (synonyms: special, definite), particular seems to isolate an item from among others with a view to eventual specification.

page 44 note 1 Cf. Ger. 'Der unmittelbare Zweck meines Briefes ist dieser (= folgender), The immediate object of my letter is this.

page 46 note 2 This very sentence in the text is an example of the use of latter unaccompanied by former as an indication of the nearer topic (individuals) by implicit contrast with the more remote (set).

page 77 note 1 In ‘such a crowd’ meaning ‘so great a crowd’, we have a carry-over from quality to quantity.

page 85 note 1 On the whole is used with positive feeling-tone when we wish to indicate that after full consideration we regard the disparity between the goal actually reached and that ideally attainable as small or unimportant.

page 85 note 2 See Appendix A, ‘some and any in Modern English Usage’.

page 91 note 1 An asterisk ahead of a locution denotes that the locution is not vernacular but is an imaginary instance of the point under discussion.

page 95 note 1 Latin clearly distinguishes a disjunctive alternative of mutually exclusive terms by aut from an alternative not excluding both expressed by vel. Finnish uses tai and vai and Welsh ynte and neu respectively to make the same distinctions.