¹ The sources used in this paper are referred to by the name of the author and the date according to the following bibliography:

S. A. Barrett, ‘The ethno-geography of the Pomo and neighboring Indians’, UCPAAE 6.1–332, 1908.—M. A. Baumhoff and D. L. Olmsted, ‘Notes on Palaihnihan culture history: Glottochronology and archaeology’ (to appear in Studies in Californian linguistics, ed. William Bright, UCPL, in press).—William Bright, ‘Some Northern Hokan relationships: A preliminary report’, UCPL 10.63–67, 1954,—Id., ‘A bibliography of the Hokan-Coahuiltecan languages’, IJAL 31.276–285, 1955—Id., ‘The Karok language’, UCPL 13.1–457, 1957. —William Bright and D. L. Olmsted, ‘A Shasta vocabulary’, The Kroeber Anthropological Society papers 20.1–55, 1959.—D. G. Brinton, The American Race; Philadelphia, 1891.— Roland B. Dixon, ‘The Shasta-Achomawi: A new linguistic stock with four new dialects’, Amer. Anthrop. 7.213–217, 1905.—Id., ‘The Shasta’, Bull, of the Amer. Mus. of Natural History 17.381–498, 1907.—Id., ‘The Chimariko Indians and language’, UCPAAE 5.293–380, 1910.—Roland B. Dixon and A. L. Kroeber, ‘Relationship of the Indian languages of California’, Science 37.225, 1913a.—Id., ‘New linguistic families in California’, Amer. Anthrop. 15.647–655, 19136.—A. S. Gatschet, ‘Der Yuma-Sprachstamm’, Zeitschrift für Ethnol. 9.391–407, 1887—Mary R. Haas, 'The Proto-Hokan-Coahuiltecan word for “Water” ', UCPL 10.57–62,1954.—Id., 'California Hokan' (to appear in Studies in Californian linguistics, ed. William Bright, UCPL, in press).—A. M. Halpern, ‘Yuma’, Linguistic structures of native America; Viking Fund Publ. in Anthrop. 6.249–288, 1946.—Id., ‘Yuma’, IJAL 12.25–33, 147–151, 204–212; 13.18–30, 92–107, 147–166, 1946–47. —R. F. Heizer, ed., ‘The Mission Indian vocabularies of Alphonse Pinart, California Indian linguistic records’, UCAR 15.1–84, 1952.—Id., ‘The Mission Indian Vocabularies of H. W. Henshaw, California Indian linguistic records’, UCAR 15.85–202, 1955.—Harry Hoijer, ‘Introduction’, Linguistic structures of native America; Viking Fund Publ. in Anthrop. 6.9–29, 1946.—Id., ‘Some problems of American Indian linguistic research’, UCPL 10.3–12, 1954.—William H. Jacobsen Jr., ‘Washo and Karok: An approach to comparative Hokan’, IJAL 24.195–212, 1958.—Id., A sketch of the Washo language, MS c. 1958.—A. L. Kroeber, ‘Languages of the coast of California, south of San Francisco Bay’, UCPAAE 2.29–80, 1904.—Id., ‘Serian, Tequistlecan, and Hokan’, UCPAAE 11.279–290, 1915.—Id., ‘Classification of the Yuman languages’, UCPL 1.21–40, 1943.—J. Alden Mason, ‘The language of the Salinan Indians’, UCPAAE 14.1–154, 1918.—Sally McLendon, 'Northern Hokan B and C (to appear in Studies in Californian linguistics, ed. William Bright, UCPL, in press).— C. Hart Merriam, The classification and distribution of the Pit River Indian tribes of California; Smithsonian Misc. Collections 78, no. 3, 1926.—Edward Moser and Mary B. Moser, Vocabulario Seri; Mexico, D. F., 1961.—D. L. Olmsted, 'Palaihnihan and Shasta I: Labial stops', Lg. 32.73–77, 1956.—Id., ‘Palaihnihan and Shasta II: Apical stops’, Lg. 33.136–138, 1957.—Id., ‘Atsugewi phonology’, IJAL 34.215–220, 1958.—Id., ‘Palaihnihan and Shasta III: Dorsal stops’, Lg. 35.637–644.—Id., ‘Atsugewi Morphology I: Verb inflection’, IJAL 27.91–113, 1961.—Id., ‘History of Palaihnihan phonology’, UCPL, in press.—Robert L. Oswalt, ‘Comparative study of two Pomo languages’ (to appear in Studies in Californian linguistics, ed. William Bright, UCPL, in press).—J. W. Powell, Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico; Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 7.7–142, 1891.—Stephen Powers, Tribes of California; Contrib. to North Amer. Ethnology, vol. 3, 1877.—Edward Sapir, ‘The position of Yana in the Hokan stock’, UCPAAE 13.1–34, 1917a.—Id., ‘The status of Washo’, Amer. Anthrop. 19.449–450, 19176—Id., ‘The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages’, IJAL 1.280–290, 1920.—Id., ‘The Hokan affinity of Subtiaba in Nicaragua’, Amer. Anthrop. 27.402–435,491–527,1925.—Id., ‘Central and North American languages’, Encyclopaedia britannica ¹⁴ 5.128–141, 1929 [reprinted in Selected writings of Edward Sapir, ed. David G. Mandelbaum, pp. 167–78; Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1949].— Edward Sapir and Morris Swadesh (Mary R. Haas, ed.), ‘Yana dictionary’, UCPL 22.1–267, 1960.—Shirley Silver, ‘Shasta and Karok: A binary comparison’ (to appear in Studies in Californian linguistics, ed. William Bright, UCPL, in press).—Leslie Spier, ‘Comparative vocabularies and parallel texts in two Yuman languages of Arizona’, Univ. of New Mexico publ, in anthropology 2.1–150, 1946.—Viola Grace Waterhouse, The grammatical structure of Oaxaca Chontal, Indiana Univ. Publ. of the Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, no. 19, 1962.—Viola Waterhouse and May Morrison, ‘Chontal phonemes’, IJAL 16.35–39, 1950.—Werner Winter, ‘Yuman languages I: First impressions’, IJAL 23.18–23, 1957.

² As late as 1954 Harry Hoijer affirmed his position that ‘there is still no conclusive evidence that even the Californian Hokan and Penutian stocks are firmly established, not to mention the broader Hokan and Penutian groups proposed by Sapir’ (5). Somewhat similar views had also been expressed earlier (1946.17–18).

³ For Karok, see Bright (1957); Shasta, Bright and Olmsted (1959), Silver (in press); Achumawi and Atsugewi, Olmsted (1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961), Baumhoff and Olmsted (in press); Pomo, McLendon (in press), Oswalt (in press); Washo, Jacobsen (1958); Oaxaca Chontal, Waterhouse and Morrison (1950), Waterhouse (1962); Seri, Moser and Moser (1961).

In recent years other important Hokan languages have also been worked on, including Shasta, by Shirley Silver; Kashaya (Southwest Pomo) by Robert L. Oswalt; Eastern and Northeastern Pomo, by Sally McLendon; Washo and Salinan, by William H. Jacobsen Jr.; and Barbareño Chumash, by Madison S. Beeler. All this work has been done under the auspices of the Survey of California Indian Languages, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley.

⁴ See Haas, ‘California Hokan’ (in press).

⁵ Except when otherwise indicated, the Shasta words quoted in this paper are taken from a word list prepared by Shirley Silver in 1961. She also provides a list of phonemes. Consonants: /p t c č k ? x h m n w r y/; vowels /i e a u/; length following both consonants and vowels: /·/; pitches: high /'/ and low (unmarked).

Phoneme inventories of other languages quoted in this paper, where available, are as follows :

karok (Bright 1957). Consonants: /p t č k ? f θs šxhmnrvy/. Vowels: /i a u/ (short and long) and /e ·o·/ (long only). Accents: (usually) high pitch and strong stress /'/ (usually) falling pitch and strong stress /^/, and (usually) weak stress (unmarked). In the, material quoted in this paper we have in addition the Karok morphophonemes v and ŕ which are /m/ and /n/ respectively before a consonant and /v/ and /r/ respectively before a vowel or juncture.

yana (Sapir and Swadesh 1960). Consonants :/b d ž ? p t c k s x h m n l r w y/; /ž/ is [dz], /c/ is [ts]. Vowels: /i e a o u/ (short and long).

achumawi (Olmsted, in press). Consonants: /p t j k q s š x ḥ h m n l r w y/; with aspiration /ph, th/, etc.; with glottalization /p? t?/, etc. Vowels: /i e ǝ a o u/ (ǝ, short only; the rest, short and long). Pitches: high /-/, falling /‘/, rising /‘/. The consonant symbol /j/ is [ts ~ tš].

atsugewi (Olmsted 1959). Consonants: /ptjkq? θ zšxmnŋlrwyh/. Vowels: /i a o u/ (short and long). Stresses: ordinary (unmarked), strong /‘/, contrastive /‘/.

eastern pomo (McLendon, in press), /p t ṭ c č k q ? p^h t^h ṭ^h c^h č^h k^h b d s š xhmnlrwyMNLRWY/. Vowels: /i e a o u/ (short and long). Stress: strong /'/.

kashaya (Southwestern Pomo; Oswalt, in press). Consonants: /p t c k q p^h t^h ṭ^h c^h k^h q^hsšh? b d m η l w y/. Vowels: /i e a o u/ (short and long).

washo (Jacobsen 1958). Consonants :/ptk?bdglwyLWY/ and the affricates /ts ds t's/. Vowels: /i e a o u/ (long and short). Stresses: strong /'/, weak (unmarked), // is high central unrounded vowel.

βarbareño chumash (Beeler, MS). Consonants : /p t c č k q ? s š x h m η 1 w y/. Vowels : /i e ï a o u/. /ï/ is high central unrounded vowel.

yuma proper (Halpern 1946, 1946–47). Consonants: /p t t^y ky k k^w q q^w ? v δ s š x x^w c m n n^y r w y/. Vowels: /i e a o u/ (short and long). Accents: accented /'/, unaccented (unmarked).

CHONTAL (Waterhouse 1962). Consonants :/ptt^ycčk?fsšxłł^ybdgmnñ 1 l^y r ŕ w y /. Vowels: /i e a o u/ (short and long). Length:/·/·

⁶ Printed sources used in this paper are given in footnote 1. In addition, the following manuscript sources were used, many of which were collected under the auspices of the Survey of California Indian Languages (SCIL) :

M. S. Beeler, Barbareño Chumash MS, 1954 and subsequently, SCIL.—Jeremiah Curtin, Atsugei, BAE MS no. 2059, a Powell schedule containing vocabulary items of Atsugewi collected c. 1884.—Id., Yana, BAE MS no. 953, a Powell schedule containing vocabulary items of Northern Yana collected in 1884 and 1889.—Id., Yuki and ?Wintun, BAE MS no. 1452, a Powell schedule containing vocabulary items of Yuki and of Achumawi [not Wintun], collected c. 1884.—A. S. Gatschet, Sasti-English and English-Sasti dictionary, BAE MS no. 706, collected in 1877 (the Shasta Valley dialect).—Id., Shasti, BAE MS no. 708, collected in 1877 (an aberrant Shasta dialect).—A. M. Halpern, MS notes on all the Pomoan languages collected in 1936–37 and 1940 and generously given to the SCIL.—A. S. Hayes, Diegueño MS, 1953, SCIL.—William H. Jacobsen Jr., Salinan MS, 1954 and subsequently, SCIL.—Id., Washo MS, 1955 and subsequently, SCIL.—Sally McLendon, Eastern and Northeastern Pomo MS, 1959 and subsequently, SCIL.—C. Hart Merriam, Vocabulary of O-kwahn'-noo-choo (Okwanuchu) collected in 1925. (A copy of this has been kindly loaned to me by the Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.)—Robert L. Oswalt, Kashaya (Southwestern Pomo) MS, 1956 and subsequently, SCIL.—Shirley Silver, Shasta MS, 1957 and subsequently, SCIL.

⁷ Dixon 1905.216.

⁸ There is a strong possibility that the final [k] was glottalized, as in Mrs. Silver's recording ?ísa·. Dixon, like most other recorders of his time, did not record glottalized consonants, at least not consistently.

In addition to the Dixon recording of this word, we find three variants in the Merriam MS (see footnote 6), viz. E'-sah-wahk, Ish'-sha-wahk, E-shah'-wahk. Normalizing these to [ísawak], we see that we have independent evidence for the crucial phonological segment awa. Similar validation for a VwV segment has been found in the Merriam recording of the word for 'nose' (§3.5) and in two variant recordings of the word for ‘trout’ (or 'fish'), viz. Chow'-wash, chaw'-wus, which may be interpreted as [čáwas]; cp. Shasta čá·s 'salmon trout' (Silver MS).

⁹ Sapir 1917. 33, 1925.406.

¹⁰ The following abbreviations are used: PH, Proto-Hokan; Kar., Karok; Chim., Chimariko; PSh., Proto-Shastan; PreSh., Pre-Shasta; Shas., Shasta; Okw., Okwanuchu; PPa., Proto-Palaihnihan; Ach., Achumawi; Ats., Atsugewi; Sal., Salinan; Sal. Ant., Antoniaño dialect of Salinan; Sal. Mig., Migueleño dialect of Salinan; Ess., Esselen; Chum., Chumash, Chumashan; Chum. Bar., Barbareño Chumash; PPo., Proto-Pomoan; SPomo, Southern Pomo; SWPomo, Kashaya or Southwestern Pomo; CPomo, Central Pomo; NPomo, Northern Pomo; NEPomo, Northeastern Pomo; SEPomo, Southeastern Pomo; EPomo, Eastern Pomo; PYu., Proto-Yuman; Hav., Havasupai; Wal., Walapai; Moh., Mohave;Mar., Maricopa; Kah., Kahwan; Coc, Cocopa; Dieg., Diegueño; Kil., Kiliwa; Chon., Chontal of Oaxaca.

¹¹ Olmsted 1957.138. The Proto-Palaihnihan reconstruction for ‘ear’ given here differs slightly from the one worked out by Olmsted and presented during a lecture to my graduate seminar in the fall of 1961. My reconstruction *ísamaK assumes a stressed first syllable accompanied by vocalic assimilation and syncope; his reconstruction *∊smaK does not.

¹² Spier's vocabularies are from Arizona and contain items in Havasupai and Maricopa only.

¹³ For Pinart, see Heizer 1952; for Henshaw, Heizer 1955.

¹⁴ In my forthcoming paper on California Hokan, attention is called to some extremely interesting intersections in the form of the words for ‘ear’ in certain Hokan and certain Penutian languages. For example, compare Barbareño Chumash tu? (probably < Proto-Chumashan *tuk) with Yawelmani Yokuts tu; compare Esselen tuksusu with Costanoan Mutsun tuksus and Costanoan Rumsen tuk's; compare all of these further with Northern Sierra Miwok to·košu? and Lake Miwok alok.

The sources for the various Penutian languages quoted here are as follows: Sylvia M. Broadbent and Catherine A. Callaghan, ‘Comparative Miwok: A preliminary survey’, IJAL 26.301–316, 1960.—R. F. Heizer, ed., ‘The Mission Indian vocabularies of H. W. Henshaw’, UCAR 15.85–202 (Costanoan 160–185), 1955.—J. Alden Mason, ‘The Mutsun dialect of Costanoan’, UCPAAE 11.399–472, 1916.—Stanley Newman, The Yawelmani dialect of Yokuts, Viking Fund Publ, in Anthrop. 6.222–248, 1946.

¹⁵ For Pinart, see Heizer 1952; for Henshaw, see Kroeber 1904.

¹⁶ Merriam's Okwanuchu recordings contain several examples of a preposed [č] where Shasta has an initial glottal stop. Important examples of this feature of Okwanuchu are: Chep'-se [čé·psi] 'liver' : Shas. ?é·psi; Chā'-wer-re [čéwere] 'nose' : Shas. ?é·r; Chep'-kah [čépka] 'hand' : Shas. ?ápka. None of these words occurs in the Dixon list of 1905.

¹⁷ In his ‘History of Palaihnihan phonology’ (in press) Olmsted has set up Ach. w : Ats. p as a regular sound correspondence but in a very limited environment. If my hypothesis here is correct, a more liberal environment will have to be allowed for.

¹⁸ Words of the Yuman languages taken from Kroeber (1943) are quoted with a minimum of orthographic changes. But to facilitate tabular arrangement tš is replaced by č and ts by c, accents are placed over vowels, macrons and carets are replaced by vowel length (·)· The glottal stop is written ?. Hence Walapai tšiveθī ‘liver’ is here written čiveθí··?.

¹⁹ Elizabeth Bright, Hill Patwin MS, 1952, SCIL; Lake Miwok is from Broadbent and Callaghan 1960 (see footnote 14).

²⁰ The Kiliwa (or Kiliwi) is quoted from a vocabulary of Wm. M. Gabb and the Cochimi from a vocabulary of J. R. Bartlett; both are presented in Gatschet 1887. 393.

²¹ Olmsted, ‘History of Palaihnihan phonology’ §27.

²² See Wallace L. Chafe, ‘Internal reconstruction in Seneca’, Lg. 35.477–495, 1959. As far as I know the only attempt at internal reconstruction for a Hokan language is an unpublished one made for Washo by William H. Jacobsen Jr., and presented as a paper to the Berkeley Linguistics Group in the winter of 1960.

²³ Bright (1957) describes this as a series of operations involving consonant loss, replacement of consonant by lengthening, and vowel contraction (320–3, pp. 33–5). I have simply summarized some of the resulting types.

²⁴ Always excepting, of course, such recent loanwords from English as vê·kin ‘wagon’, kô·n ‘corn’.

²⁵ Joseph H. Greenberg, Essays in Linguistics 48 (Chicago, 1957).

²⁶ That the languages are not close is clearly evidenced by the fact that Olmsted, in his ‘History’ (in press), has found only 204 cognate sets out of the quite full vocabularies he has for both of these languages. [Olmsted adds the following note: The author has overlooked my statement in the ‘History’ that other known, obvious cognates were omitted if they exemplified correspondences already represented ten times or more. Nevertheless the number thus excluded probably does not exceed fifty sets, and her conclusion as to ‘closeness’ is essentially accurate.]

²⁷ See footnote 6.

²⁸ Examples of words that are the same as or very similar to those of Shasta Valley Shasta are shown below. Shasta ‘X’ is placed before the colon and Shasta Valley Shasta after the colon. When the latter are unmarked they are taken from Silver (MS, footnote 6); otherwise they are marked Bright (Bright and Olmsted 1959). Gatschet's recordings are crude but more or less typical of the period.

hóko : xúk·wa? ‘two‘

tskénoma : xácki ~ xácki ‘three‘

itsehäwa : ?é·cehé·wi ‘ten‘

áwa : ?á·wa ‘wood‘

garisha : ḱAaris·'á? 'good'

gî'mpî : ḱAimpî? 'big'

hâ'pshu 'horse' : ?á·psu ‘dog‘

gitad ‘silver salmon’ : kit·ár? ‘summer salmon‘

kîtsmashe ‘to sleep’ : kicmasí ‘go to sleep’ (Bright)

mai : máy?i· ‘you (sg.)‘ (Bright)

awatíkoa :?awatíkhwa· ‘man‘

tarî'tsî : tarí·i? 'woman, wife'

One or two words look like Achumawi, viz.

ássa : Ach. as ‘water’ (but also atsa : Shas. ?ác·a)

ârîstî : Ach. ālisti ‘stone‘

Many of the rest of the words are not at present identifiable and have, indeed, a marked non-Shasta appearance.