¹ For detailed discussion on this issue, seeFeuerwerker, A., China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan–huai (1844–1916) and Mandarin Enterprise (Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1958), pp. 96–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Liu, Kwang-Ching, ‘British-Chinese Steamship Rivalry 1873–1875’, in Cowan, C. D. (ed.), The Economic Development of China and Japan (George Allen & Unwin: London, 1964), pp. 49–78.Google Scholar

² See Hung-Chang's, Li memorial dated 27 day of 2 moon of the Ist year of Kuang-huü (3 April 1875),Google Scholar in Hung-chang, Li, Li Wen-chung kung ch'uan-chi (Collected Works of Li Hung-chang) (Taipei, reprint, 1962), Vol. 2, pp. 111–12.Google Scholar

³ See Li Hung-chang's memorial to the throne dated 11 day of 12 moon of the 6th year of Kuang-hsü (10 January 1881) in Liu Hung-chang, ibid., p. 492.

⁴ See Governor-General Liu K'in-i's memorial to the throne dated 15 day of 1 moon of the 7th year of Kuang-hsü (13 February 1881), in K'un-i, Liu, Liu K'un-i i-chi (Works of the late Liu K'un-i) (Peking, 1959), Vol. 2, p. 608.Google Scholar

⁵ Checking through some overseas Chinese newspapers published in the United States during this period, I found that nothing was mentioned about the project of the China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company. See Chiu-chin-shan t'ang-jen hsin-wen tzu (San Francisco China News), February and April 1875 (incomplete);T'ang-fan Kung-pao (The Oriental, San Francisco), September to November 1875 (incomplete); T'ang-fan hsin-pao (San Francisco Chinese Newspaper), August and September 1876, and February and March 1877 (incomplete); Hua-jen Chi-lu (The Chinese Record, San Francisco), July 1877 to November 1878 (incomplete); Chung-wai hsin-pao (Chinese and Foreign News, San Francisco), September and October 1878 (incomplete). Most of these incomplete newspapers are deposited in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar

⁶ See Hsu, Immanuel C. H., China's Entrance into the Family of Nations (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1960).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷ A good case study on the establishment of the first Imperial Chinese consulate in Singapore is Chung-chi's, Wen unpublished thesis entitled ‘The Establishment of the Imperial Chinese Consulate in the Straits Settlements’ (M. A. thesis, University of Singapore, 1964).Google Scholar

⁸ The instruction was issued to all Chinese ministers overseas by the Tsungli Yamen on 16 day of 8 moon of 4th year of Kuang-hsü, (12 September 1878),Google Scholar see fu-Ch'eng, Hsueh, Ch'u-shih kung-tu, Vol. I, p. 26.Google Scholar

⁹ See ChangChih-tung's memorial to the throne dated 24 day of 10 moon of the 13th year of Kuang-hsü (8 December 1887),Google Scholar in Chih-tung, Chang, Chang Wen-hsiang kung ch'uan-chi (Collected Works of Chang Chih-tung) (Taipei, 1963), Vol. I, pp. 471–2.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Ibid., pp. 472–3.

¹¹ It has been well established by scholars that the Chinese in the nineteenth century only controlled the retail trade and the junk trade between Singapore and China. The lion's share of Singapore's foreign trade was still in the hands of Western merchants. See Allen, G. C. and Donnithorne, A. G., Western Enterprise in Indonesia and Malaya: A study in Economic Development (George Allen & Unwin: London, 1962);Google ScholarKen, Wong Lin, ‘The trade of Singapore 1819–1869’, in Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 33, Pt 4;Google ScholarDing, Chiang Hai, ‘Sino-British Mercantile Relations in Singapore's Enterpot Trade 1870–1915’, in Ch'en, Jerome and Tarling, Nicholas (eds), Studies in the Social History of China and South-East Asia: Essays in Memory of Victor Purcell (Cambridge U. Press: Cambridge, 1970), pp. 247–66.Google Scholar

¹² The report was apparently circulated to most of the Governor-Generals and Chinese ministers overseas. After comparing various versions, I find the most complete report is contained in the archives of the Chinese Embassy in Germany, now published as Hsi-hung, Liu (ed.). Chu Te Shih-kuang tang-an ch'ao (Record of the Archives of the Chinese Embassy in Germany) (Taipei, 1966), Vol. 2, pp. 655–704.Google Scholar

¹³ For a discussion of the Western economic threat and China's response after 1895, see King, F. H. H., A Concise Economic History of Modern China (New York, 1969), pp. 75–83.Google Scholar

¹⁴ See, for instance, a notice with detailed regulations regarding overseas Chinese investment in developing Taiwan which was put up on the notice board of the Chinese Consulate in Singapore. It was also published in Lat Pau, 17/8/1888, p. 1.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See, for instance, the acting Consul-General of the Straits Settlement, Chang Pi-shih (known as Chang Chen-hsun in Ch'ing officials records, or Thio Tiauw Siat in Western sources) who was used by Sheng Hsuan-huai, then the Director-General of the Imperial Railway Administration, to solicit funds. See Sheng Hsuan-huai's letter to Wang Wen-shao and Chang Chih-tung, dated 13 day of 6 moon of the 22nd year of Kuang-hsü (23 July 1896) in Hsuan-huai, ShengYü-chai ts'un-kao, Vol. I, p. 633.Google Scholar

¹⁶ See Sing Po, 14/10/1896, p. 8.Google Scholar

¹⁷ For a detailed discussion in regard to the origins and development for the construction of the Peking-Hankow line, see Kuo-Ch'i, Li, Chung-kuo chao-ch'i te tieh-lu ching-ying (The Construction and Management of the Early Chinese Railroads) (Taipei, 1961), pp. 117–78.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See Kuang-hsü-ch'ao tung-hua lu (Records of the Kuang-hsü Reign), the 21st year of Kuang-hsü reign.

¹⁹ See Letter from Sheng Hsuan-huai Wang Wen-shao dated 21 day of 6 moon of the 22nd year of Kuang-hsü (31 July 1896)Google Scholar, in Hsuan-huai, Sheng, Yü-chai tsun-kao, Vol. 25, p. 7;Google ScholarSing Po, 14/10/1896, p. 8.Google Scholar

²⁰ Hsuan-huai, Sheng, Yü-chai tsun-kao, Vol. 25, pp. 8–9;Google ScholarYen-wei, Wang and Liang, Wang (eds), Ching-chi wai-chiao shih-liao (Historical Materials on Foreign Relations in the Late Ch'ing Period), Vol. 123, pp. 7–13.Google Scholar

²¹ See Letter from Chang Chih-tung to Wang Wen-shao, dated 23 day of moon of the 22nd year of Kuang-hsü (2 August 1896),Google Scholar in Chih-tung, Chang, Chang Wen-hsiang kung ch'uan-chi, Vol. 151, p. 22 (original).Google Scholar

²² For a detailed discussion of the impact of reformist and revolutionary activities on the overseas Chinese in Singapore and Malaya, see Ching-Hwang, Yen, The Overseas Chinese and the 1911 Revolution (Oxford University Press: Kuala Lumpur and New York, 1976), Particularly chs 3 and 7.Google Scholar

²³ See Ta-ch'ing te-tsung ching-huang-ti shih-lu (Veritable Records of the Emperor Kuang-hsü), Vol. 492, p. 126.Google Scholar

²⁴ See Lee, En-han, ‘China's Response to Foreign Investment in Her Mining Industry 1902–1911’, in Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 28, no. 1 (11 1968) p. 60;Google Scholar also by the same author, Wan-ch'ing te shou-hui K'uang-ch'uan yun-tung (The Movement of Recovering Mining Rights in the Late Ch'ing Period) (Taipei, 1963).Google Scholar

²⁵ Lee, En-han, ‘China's Response to Foreign Investment’.Google Scholar

²⁶ Lee, En-han, Wan-ch'ing te shou-hui K'uang-chuan yun-tung, pp. 75–9.Google Scholar

²⁷ Ibid., p. 82.

²⁸ See Hsun-wu, Chang, Kuang-hsü sa-i nien Chung-Mei Kung-yeh feng-ch'ao (Sino-American Dispute over the Exclusion of Chinese Immigrants in 1905) (Taipei, 1965).Google Scholar

²⁹ See K'uang-wu tang (Archives of Mineral Affairs) (Taipei, 1960), p. 1997.Google Scholar

³⁰ Lee, En-han, ‘China's Response to Foreign Investment’, p. 64.Google Scholar

³¹ Ibid., pp. 65–71;

Schrecker, J. E., Imperialism and Chinese Nationalism: Germany in Shantung (Cambridge: Massachusetts, 1971), pp. 194–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² See Ta-ch'ing te-tsung ching-huang-ti shih-lu, Vol. 535, p. 6b.Google Scholar

³³ See ‘The Memorial of the Ministry of Commerce to the Throne’, in Kuang-hsü ch'ao tung-hua lu (Peking, 1958), Vol. 5, pp. 161–2.Google Scholar

³⁴ For Chang's economic involvement in China, see Godley, M. R., ‘The Mandarin Capitalist from Nanyang’, (Ph.D. thesis, Brown University, 1973).Google Scholar

³⁵ See Ta-ch'ing te-tsung ching-huang-ti shih-lu, Vol. 576, pp. 10–11;Google Scholar see also Kuang-hsü ch'ao tung-hua lu, Vol. 5, p.91.Google Scholar

³⁶ See ‘Hsing-chia-po chung-hua tsung shang-hui shih-chi’ (The Historical Records of the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce), in Hsing-chia-po chung-hua tsung shang-hui ta-hsa-lo-ch'eng chi-nien k'an (Souvenir Magazine of the Opening Ceremony of the Newly Completed Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce Building) (Singapore, 1964), p. 152.Google Scholar

³⁷ See Yang Shih-ch'i's report to the court dated 16 day of 2 moon of 34th year of Kuang-hsü, (18 March 1908), in Shang-wu kuan-pao (Government Gazette on Commercial Affairs),Google Scholar the 34th year of Kuang-hsü, , Vol. 6, pp. 8–11;Google Scholar see also Kuang-hsü ch'ao tung-hua lu, Vol. 5, pp. 23–26.Google Scholar

³⁸ See ‘Reply of the Chinese Consul-General to the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce in relation to purchase of shares of the proposed companies in China by the overseas Chinese in southeast Asia’, in Shang-wu kuan-pao, the 33rd year of kuang-hsü, Vol. 21, p. 10;Google ScholarChung Shing Jit Pao, 2/10/1907, p. 6; 7/10/1907, p. 8; 8/10/1907, p.6.Google Scholar

³⁹ See ‘Memorial of the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce to the Court relating to rules and regulations for encouraging Chinese merchants to promote modern enterprises dated 13 day of 7 moon of 33rd year of Kuang-hsü’ (21 August 1907)’ in Ta-ch'ing Kuang-hsü hsin fa-ling (New Statutes of the Great Ch'ing Empire during the Kuang-hsü Reign), pp. 49–50.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ The general schedule for rewards as recommended by the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce is as follows: those who raised 20,000,000 yuan—first class viscount (i-teng tzu-chueh); 18,000,000 yuan—second class viscount; 16,000,000 yuan—third class viscount; 14,000,000 yuan—first class baron (i-teng nan-chueh); 12,000,000 yuan—second class baron; 10,000,000 yuan—third class baron; 8,000,000 yuan—third rank officer (san p'in ch'ing) with feather; 7,000,000 yuan—third rank officer; 6,000,000 yuan—fourth rank officer with feather; 5,000,000 yuan—fourth rank officer; 4,000,000 yuan—fifth rank officer with second rank officer brevet title; 3,000,000 yuan—fifth rank officer; 2,000,000 yuan—fourth rank officer brevet title with button of second rank (ssu-p'in ch'ing-hsien, erh-p'in ting-tai); 1,000,000 yuan—fourth rank officer brevet title; 800,000 yuan—brevet title of second rank (erh-p'in hsien); 500,000 yuan—brevet title of third rank; 300,000 yuan—brevet title of fourth rank and 100,000 yuan—brevet title of fifth rank. See the attached list of the memorial of the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Ibid., pp. 49–50.

⁴¹ Ibid., p. 49.

⁴² See Ching-hwang, Yen, ‘Ch'ing's Sale of Honours and the Chinese Leadership in Singapore and Malaya 1877–1912’, in Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 1, no. 2, p. 21.Google Scholar

⁴³ See T'ing-i, Kuo, Chin-tai Chung-kuo shih-shih jih-chi (Taipei, 1963), Vol. 1, p. 449.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ About 9,430,000 dollars were estimated to be invested in various mining and farming projects in Fukien and Kwangtung provinces by Foo Chee Choon and his partners during 1907 and 1908. This figure is complied from Shang-wu kuan-pao, K'uang-wu tang,Google ScholarChing-yu, Wang (ed.), Chung-kuo chin-tai kung-yeh shih tzu-liao, Vol. 2, and Ch'en T'ao, Shen-an-chai i-kao, p. 211.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ See ‘Memorial of the Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Yang Shih-ch'i, to the Court recommending Overseas Chinese talent in Southeast Asia’, in Shang-wu kuan-pao, the 34th year of Kuang-hsü, Vol. 7, pp. 7–8.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ See Godley, Michael R., ‘Chang Pi-shih and Nanyang Chinese involvement in South China's Railroads, 1896–1911', in Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 4, no. 1 (03 1973), pp. 17–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁷ Ibid.

⁴⁸ See Chang Yü-nan's open letter to Hsiao Ch'ih-shan dated 25th day of 3rd moon of 30th year of Kuang-hsü reign (10 May 1904)Google Scholar, reproduced in Thien Nan Shin pao (The Thien Nan Daily, Singapore), 30/5/1904, p. 3.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ See Hsu, M. C., Railway Problems in China (New York, 1968, reprint), p. 90.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ See Yong, C. F., The New Gold Mountain: The Chinese in Australia 1901–1921 (Adelaide, 1977), pt 2, ch. 3;Google ScholarCoolidge, M. R., Chinese Immigration (New York, 1909, Taipei, 1968, reprint), chs 2 and 5.Google Scholar

⁵¹ See Allen, and Donnithorne, , Western Enterprise in Indonesia and Malaya, chs 1 and 14.Google Scholar

⁵² According to an estimate, the Chinese excise farmers of the Prince of Wales Island (Penang) paid only $66,640 rent whereas their net profits were $70,420. For details, see Ken, Wong Lin, ‘The Revenue Farms of Prince of Wales Island 1805–1830’, in Journal of the South Seas Society, Vol. 19, Pts 1 and 2 (1965), pp. 56–127.Google Scholar

⁵³ For instance, Chang Yü-nan, who had the confidence of the Dutch colonialauthority in the East Indies, received preferential treatment of his economic activities in Delhi, Sumatra and became a very wealthy Chinese in Southeast Asia. See Kuo-hsiang, K'uang, Ch'ang-pan Ch'ao-hsien t'ieh-lu te Chang Yü-nan ling-shih’ in Kuo-hsiang, K'uang, Ping-ch'eng san-chi (Hong Kong, 1958), pp. 90–1.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ For works on Chang pi-shih, see Anonymous, ‘Chang Pi-shih’, in K'e China: P'ili K'e-hsu kung-hui K'ai-mu chi-nien t'e-k'an (Hakka: Souvenir Magazine of the Opening Celebration of the Hakka Association of Perak) (Penang, 1951), p. 505;Google ScholarKuo-hsiang, K'uang, ‘Chang Pi-shih ch'i jen’, in K'uang Kuo-hsiang, Ping-ch'eng san-chi, pp. 98–9;Google ScholarKuan-ying, Cheng, ‘Chang Pi-shih chun cheng p'ing shih-lueh’, in Yun-lung, Shen (ed.), Chin-tai Chung-kuo shih-liao ts'ung k'an (Taipei), No. 75, pp. 5–20;Google Scholar‘Chang Pi-shih’, in Boorman, H. L. and Howard, R. C. (eds), Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (New York, 1967), pp. 90–2;Google ScholarGodley, M. R., ‘The Mandarin Capitalist from Nanyang’ (Ph. D. thesis, Brown University, 1973).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Anonnymous, , ‘Chang Pi-shih’, in K'e Chia, p. 505;Google ScholarKuan-ying, Cheng, ‘Chang Pi-shih Chung-kuo shih-liao ts'ung k'an’, pp. 6–8.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See Reid, Anthony, The Contest for North Sumatra (Oxford University Press: Kuala Lumpur, 1969), p. 260.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ For instance, the Kwong Yik Banking Company Limited of Singapore was founded by a group of Cantonese merchants in 1903, the Sze Hai Tong Banking and Insurance Co. Ltd was founded by the members of Singapore Teochew community in 1907.Google Scholar See Ee-Leong, Tan, ‘The Chinese Banks Incorporated in Singapore and Malaya’, in Journal of Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 26 Pt I (1953), pp. 113–39.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ See Jackson, J. C., Planters and Speculators: Chinese and European Enterprise in Malaya 1786–1921 (U. of Malaya Press: Kuala Lumpur, 1968);Google ScholarKen Lin, Wong, The Malayan Tin Industry to 1914 (U. of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1965) pp. 60–4.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ SeeDing, Chiang Hai ‘Sino-British Mercantile Relations in Singapore's Entrepot Trade 1870–1915’, in Ch'en, and Tarling, (eds), Studies in the Social History of China and Southeast Asia, pp. 256–7.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ See King, , A Concise Economic History of Modern China, pp. 27–30.Google Scholar

⁶¹ The extortion and exploitation of overseas Chinese became so serious that a combined petition of Chinese Chambers of Commerce of Singapore, Penang and Luzon was sent to the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce urging for protection. See Kuang-hsu-ch'ao tung-hua lu, 11 moon of 29th year of Kuang-hsü (12 1903), Vol. 5, p. 129.Google Scholar

⁶² See The report of Chang Chen-hsun (Chang Pi-shih) to the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, dated 13 day of 9 moon of 30th year of Kuang-hsü, (21 10 1904), in Kuang-hsü ch'ao tung-hua lu, Vol. 5, pp. 104–5.Google Scholar

⁶³ Feuerwerker, , China's Early Industrialization.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ See ‘Memorial from the Ministry of Commerce to the Court for the protection of the returned overseas Chinese’, dated 4 day of II moon of 29th year of Kuang-hsü (22 December 1903), in Ta-ch'ing Kuang-hsü hsin fa-ling, pp. 56–7.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ See the Commercial Code especially dealing with Company Law and the Bankruptcy Law in ibid., pp. 2–11, 13–19.