¹ The first quotation is from Kant's Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime, trans. Goldthwait, John T. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965), 57;Google Scholar the second from the Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman, Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan, 1963)Google Scholar, A 315/B 372; and the third from the essay, ‘Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View’, in On History, Lewis White Beck (ed.) (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963), 21, Ak. 26.Google Scholar

² Alasdair, Maclntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 219. Cf. pp. 42, 112.Google Scholar

³ Philippa, Foot, Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), 1.Google Scholar

⁴ Bernard, Williams, Moral Luck: Philosophical Papers 1973–1980 (Cambridge University Press, 1981), esp. pp. 14, 19.Google Scholar

⁵ Onora, O'Neill ‘Kant After Virtue’, Inquiry 26 (1984), 397. Cf. p. 396.Google Scholar For an earlier interpretation which also stresses the prominence of virtue (but in a less either/or manner), see Warner, Wick, ‘Kant's Moral Philosophy’, in Kant's Ethical Philosophy, trans. James, Ellington (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983). (Originally published as the Introduction to The Metaphysical Principles of Virtue by Bobbs-Merrill in 1964.)Google Scholar

⁶ For a more detailed look at this issue, see my essay, ‘On Some Vices of Virtue Ethics’, American Philosophical Quarterly 21 (1984), 227–236.

⁷ Kant, , Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. Lewis, White Beck (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1959), 9, Ak. 393.Google Scholar

⁸ Robert, Paul Wolff, The Anatomy of Reason (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 56–57.Google Scholar

⁹ Kant, Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone, trans. Theodore, M. Green and Hudson, Hoyt H. (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1960), 20.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Kant, , The Doctrine of Virtue, trans. Gregor, Mary J. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964), 38, Ak. 380.Google Scholar

¹¹ On strength and virtue, see The Doctrine of Virtue, 49–50, Ak. 389, 54/393, 58/397, 66/404, 70–71/408–409. See also Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View, trans. Gregor, Mary J. (Netherlands: Nijhoff, 1974), 26–27,Google Scholar Ak. 147, and the Lectures on Ethics, trans. Louis, Infeld (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1963), 73. On the accomplishment of goals, see the Foundations, 10, Ak. 394.Google Scholar

¹² Kant, , The Doctrine of Virtue, 41, Ak. 382.Google Scholar See also the Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis, White Beck (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956), 86–87, Ak. 84–85, and the Foundations, 30–31, Ak. 414.Google Scholar

¹³ Harbison, Warren G., ‘The Good Will’, Kant-Studien (1980), 59.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Onora, O'Neill ‘Kant After Virtue’, and ‘Consistency in Action’, in New Essays on Ethical Universalizability, Potter, N. and Timmons, M. (ed.) (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1984), and Otfried Hoffö, ‘Kants kategorischer Imperativ als Kriterium des Sittlichen’, in O. Hoffö (ed.), Ethik und Politik (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1979), esp. pp. 90–92.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Kant, Foundations, 17, Ak. 401, n. 1; 38/420, n. 8.

¹⁶ O'Neill, ‘Kant After Virtue’, 394.

¹⁷ O'Neill, ‘Kant After Virtue’, 393–394.

¹⁸ O'Neill, 395; Höffe, 91.

¹⁹ O'Neill, 394, 395.Google Scholar

²⁰ Kant, , The Doctrine of Virtue, 41–42, Ak. 383, 69/407. Cf. Anthropology, 26–27, Ak. 153.Google Scholar

²¹ Kant to the contrary, Aristotelian virtue is not a mechanical habit but rather a state of character determined by a rational principle (Nicomachean Ethics 1107al).

²² Kant, The Doctrine of Virtue, 42, Ak. 383.

²³ Kant, The Doctrine of Virtue, 43, Ak. 384.

²⁴ Kant, , The Doctrine of Virtue, 46, Ak. 386. Other components of the duty of self-perfection include the cultivation of one's ‘natural powers’— powers of ‘mind, soul, and body’.Google Scholar

²⁵ Kant, , The Doctrine of Virtue, 80, Ak. 416. Cf. 17/218: ‘All duties, merely because they are duties, belong to ethics’.Google Scholar

²⁶ Foot, Virtues and Vices, 10, 14.

²⁷ Two recent examples of this view include Lawrence, A. Blum, Friend-ship, Altruism and Morality (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980),Google Scholar and Lawrence, M. Hinman, ‘On the Purity of Our Motives: A Critique of Kant's Account of the Emotions and Acting for the Sake of Duty’, Monist 66 (1983), 251–266.Google Scholar

²⁸ Nicomachean Ethics VI. 13, 1139b 4–5.Google Scholar

²⁹ Kant, , Critique of Practical Reason, 74, Ak. 72. 486Google Scholar

³⁰ Karl, Ameriks, ‘The Hegelian Critique of Kantian Morality’, 11. (MS. read at the 1984 American Philosophical Association Western Division Meeting.)Google Scholar

³¹ Kant, , Critique of Practical Reason, 75, Ak. 73. Here I am following Ameriks, 12.Google Scholar

³² Kant, The Doctrine of Virtue, 158, Ak. 484.Google Scholar

³³ Kant, Religion, 19, n.; cf. Anthropology, 147, Ak. 282, and Education, trans, by Annette Churton (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960), 120–121.Google Scholar

³⁴ Earlier versions of this essay were presented at the Johns Hopkins University in August 1983 (in conjunction with the Council for Philosophical Studies Summer Institute—‘Kantian Ethics: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives’), and at the 1984 Northern New England Philosophy Association meeting at Plymouth State College in New Hampshire. I would also like to thank Marcia Baron, Ludwig Siep, Warner Wick, and the Editor of Philosophy for valuable criticisms of earlier written drafts.