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The Indian Legend of Hiawatha

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2020

Stith Thompson
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Extract

To the world of letters the legend of Hiawatha connotes Longfellow, without whose popular treatment it would be as little known as the adventures of Coyote or Raven, or a dozen other culture heroes of the Red Men. Since Longfellow's poem is the only form in which American Indian legend has reached the great mass of civilized men, the question of its authenticity must present itself to the general reader of American literature no less than to the student of literary relations. Do sixty years of active work on the part of ethnologists and folk-lorists show that Longfellow's Song of Hiawatha is truly Indian in theme, atmosphere, and spirit? To essay an answer to this question is the purpose of the present study.

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Type
Research Article
Information
PMLA , Volume 37 , Issue 1: American Bibliography for 1921 , March 1922, pp. 128 - 140
Copyright
Copyright © Modern Language Association of America, 1922

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References

1 Samuel Longfellow, Life of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (Boston, 1893), ii, p. 182.

2 Ibid., ii, p. 273.

3 Ibid., ii, p. 273 (June 26, 1854).

4 Ibid., ii, p. 273 (June 28, 1854).

5 Ibid., ii, p. 273 (June 5, 1854). 6 Ibid., ii, pp. 298, 303.

7 Op. cit., ii, p. 287.

8 F. Broilo, Die Quellen des Longfellow's Song of Hiawatha. In so far as I have checked its results, this study of Longfellow's sources appears to be thoroughly and accurately done. As will be seen, the purpose of the present paper is quite different from that of Broilo: it is to ascertain the present status of the Hiawatha legend among the Indians.

9 J. B. N. Hewitt, “Hiawatha,” Handbook of American Indians (Bulletin Bureau of American Ethnology, xxx, part i, p. 546).

10 J. B. N. Hewitt, “Nanabozho,” ibid., part ii, p. 19; H. B. Alexander, The Mythology of All Races—vol. x, North American, pp. 38 ff.; also the various references given in notes 12 and 14 below.

11 Hewitt, “Hiawatha,” loc. cit.

12 Writings available to Longfellow were: S. G. Goodrich, Manners, Customs and Antiquities of the Indians of North and South America (Boston, 1845); John G. E. Heckewelder, An Account of the History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (Philadelphia, 1819); H. R. Schoolcraft, (a) Algic Researches, 2 v. (New York, 1839), (b) Onéota, or the Indian in his Wigwam, etc. (New York and London, 1845), (c) Historical and Statistical Information respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, parts i-vi (Philadelphia, 1851-7); John Tanner, Narrative of Captivity and Adventures among the Indians, etc. (New York, 1830). Longfellow also used several other works not particularly related to the Ojibwa or other Algonquin tribes, especially the following: Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Conditions of the North American Indians, 2 v. (New York and London, 1844); Mrs. Mary H. Eastman, Dahcotah, or Life and Legends of the Sioux around Ft. Snelling (New York, 1849). In addition to these sources, he picked up information in many miscellaneous ways, most of them oral. See Broilo, op. cit.

Subsequent collections of Ojibwa myth are: William Carson, “Ojibwa Tales,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxx, p. 491; A. F. Chamberlain, (a) “A Mississauga Legend of Nanibojo,” ibid., v, p. 291, (b) “Tales of the Mississaugas,” ibid., ii, 141, (c) “Nanibozhu amongst the Otchipwe, Mississaugas and other Algonkian Tribes,” ibid., iv, p. 193; Albert E. Jenks, “The Bear Maiden,” ibid., xv, p. 33; William Jones, (a) “Ojibwa Tales from the North Shore of Lake Superior,” ibid., xxix, p. 368, (b) Ojibwa Texts, edited by Truman Michelson (Publications of the American Ethnological Society, vol. vii—part 1, Leyden, 1917, part 2, New York, 1919); J. B. de Josselin de Jong, Original Odjibwe-Texts, with English Translation, Notes, and Vocabulary (Leipzig and Berlin, 1913); J. O. Kinneman, “Chippeway Legends,” American Antiquarian, xxxii, p. 96; Julia Knight, “Ojibwa Tales from Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxvi, p. 91; Col. G. E. Laidlaw, “Ojibwa Myths and Tales,” Ontario Archeological Reports, 1914, p. 77, 1915, p. 71, 1916, p. 84, 1918, p. 74 (continued in separate reprint issued by the author); Truman Michelson “Ojibwa Tales,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxiv, p. 249; Paul Radin, Some Myths and Tales of the Ojibwa of Southeastern Ontario (Canadian Geological Survey, Anthropological Series, ii, Ottawa, 1914); H. R. Schoolcraft, The Myth of Hiawatha and other Oral Legends, etc. (Philadelphia and London, 1856); Alanson Skinner, Manuscript (Ojibwa Tales) cited in Skinner and Satterlee, Folklore of the Menominee Indians, passim; Harlan I. Smith, “Some Ojibwa Myths and Traditions, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xix, 215; F. G. Speck, Myths and Folk-Lore of the Timiskaming Algonquin and Timagami Ojibwa (Canadian Geological Survey, Anthropological Series, viii, Ottawa, 1915).

13 See Walter J. Hoffman, The Midewiwin or Grand Medicine Lodge of the Ojibwa (Report Bureau of American Ethnology, vii, Washington, 1896).

14 The bibliography of Algonquian myth is very extensive. Collections cited in this paper are the following: Andrew J. Blackbird, Complete both Early and Late History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan (Harbor Springs, Mich., 1897); Rev. Father DeSmet, Oregon Missions and Travels over the Rocky Mountains in 1845-46 (New York, 1847); J. W. Fewkes, “Contributions to Passamaquoddy Folklore,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, iii, 265; G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales (New York, 1903); Stansbury Hagar, “Weather and Seasons in Micmac Mythology,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, x, p. 101; Walter J. Hoffman, The Menomini Indians (Report Bureau of American Ethnology, xiv, Washington, 1896); E. Jack, “Maliseet Legends,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, viii, p. 193; William Jones, (a) Fox Texts (Publications of the American Ethnological Society, i, Leyden, 1907), (b) Kickapoo Tales (same series, ix, translated by Truman Michelson, Leyden, 1915), (c) “Episodes in the Culture-Hero Myth of the Sauks and Foxes,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, xiv, p. 225; A. L. Kroeber, “Cheyenne Tales,” ibid., xiii, p. 161; Charles G. Leland, Algonkin Legends of New England (Boston, 1884); Walter McClintock, The Old North Trail, or Life, Legends, and Religion of the Blackfeet Indians (London, 1910); W. H. Mechling, Malecite Tales (Canadian Geological Survey, Anthropological Series, iv, Ottawa, 1914); S. T. Rand, Legends of the Micmac (New York and London, 1894); Frank Russell, Explorations in the Far North (University of Iowa Publication, Iowa City, 1908); Alanson Skinner, Notes on the Eastern Cree and Northern Saulteaux (Anthropological Papers, American Museum of Natural History, ix, pp. 1-178, New York, 1911); Alanson Skinner and John V. Satterlee, Folklore of the Menomini Indians (same series, xiii, pp. 219-546, New York, 1915); F. G. Speck, “Some Naskapi Myths from Little Whale River,” Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxviii, p. 70; Clark Wissler and D. C. Duvall, Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians (Anthropological Papers, American Museum of Natural History, ii, pp. 1-164, New York, 1908).

15 See Hoffman, Midewiwin, p. 175.

16 See Hoffman, Midewiwin, passim.

17 Speck, Timagami Ojibwa, p. 28.

18 DeJong, Original Odjibwe-Texts, p. 5; Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 240; Radin, Ojibwa Myths, p. 12; Jones, Ojibwa Texts, p. 3.

19 The Micmac version: cf. Rand, Micmac Legends, No. 60; Leland, Algonkin Legends, p. 15; Jack, Journal of American Folk-Lore, viii, p. 194.

20 Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 241; Blackbird, Ottawa and Chippeway Indians, p. 52. Cf. Hewitt, Iroquois Cosmology, (Report Bureau of American Ethnology, xxi) 185 ff.

21 DeSmet, Oregon Missions and Travels, p. 344 (Potawatomi).

22 Hoffman, Menomini Indians, p. 87.

23 Ibid., p. 114; Jones, Ojibwa Texts, p. 3.

24 Radin, Ojibwa Myths, p. 12.

25 DeSmet, loc. cit. (Potawatomi); Leland, Algonkin Legends, p. 14 (Micmac); Jack, Journal of American Folk-Lore, viii, p. 194 (Micmac).

26 Cf. Jones, Fox Texts, pp. 337 ff.; Jones, Journal of American Folk-Lore xiv, 225 ff.; Hoffman, Menomini Indians, pp. 91, 93, 114; DeSmet, op. cit., p. 244 (Potawatomi).

27 DeSmet, op. cit., p. 344 (Potawatomi); Speck, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxviii, p. 70 (Naskapi).

28 Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 253; Schoolcraft, Hiawatha, p. 35; Skinner manuscript, cited in Skinner and Satterlee, op. cit., p. 519 (Ojibwa); Dejong, Odjibwa Texts, p. 13; Carson, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxx, 491 (Ojibwa); Hoffman, Menomini Indians, pp. 87, 115, 116 (the fullest version); cf. Jones, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xiv, 225 ff. (Sauk and Fox); Jones, Ojibwa Texts, p. 15.

29 Hoffman, Menomini Indians, pp. 88, 115; Drake, Indian Tribes, p. 57; DeSmet, op. cit., pp. 344-5 (Ojibwa); Jones, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xiv, 225 ff. (Sauk and Fox).

30 Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 260; Skinner manuscript, cited ibid., p. 520 (Plains Ojibwa and Cree); Schoolcraft, Hiawatha, p. 40 (Ojibwa); Skinner, Northern Saulteaux, p. 174; Russell, Explorations in the Far North, p. 207 (Cree); Jones, Fox Texts, p. 355; Jones, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xiv, pp. 225 ff. (Sauk and Fox); Dejong, Odjibwa-Texts, p. 14; Lowie, Northern Shoshone, p. 241; Dorsey, The Thegiha Language, p. 240 (Omaha).

31 Cf. Jones, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xiv, pp. 225 ff. (Sauk and Fox).

32 Schoolcraft, Hiawatha, p. 38 (Ojibwa); DeJong, Odjibwa-Texts, p. 14; Skinner, Northern Saulteaux, p. 174; Russell, Explorations, p. 206 (Woods Cree); Blackbird, Ottawa and Chippeway Indians, p. 54 (Ottawa); Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 255; Skinner manuscript, cited ibid., p. 519 (Plains Ojibwa); Hoffman, Menomini Indians, p. 133; Radin, Ojibwa Myths, pp. 20, 23. Cf. Jones, Fox Texts, p. 353.

33 See the Schoolcraft, Dejong, Skinner manuscript, Radin, and Hoffman references in note 32. Cf. also Carson, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxx, 490 (Ojibwa).

34 This incident occurs in the folk-lore of the Indian tribes of every part of North America. For exhaustive references, see Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxx, p. 422. In connection with this story it occurs in the references given in note 33.

35 Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 272; Hoffman, Menomini Indians, pp. 88, 125 (latter exactly as in Longfellow); Schoolcraft, Hiawatha, p. 21 (Ojibwa); Carson, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxx, p. 492; Blackbird, op. cit., p. 55 (Ottawa); Mooney, Cherokee Myths, p. 320; Dejong, Odjibwe-Texts, pp. 10, 11. Cf. Skinner, Eastern Cree, p. 101.

36 See Chamberlain, Journal of American Folk-Lore, ii, p. 142 (Mississauga).

37 Jones, Fox Texts, p. 101; Schoolcraft, Onéota, p. 116 (Ojibwa); Lowie, Assiniboine Tales (Siouan stock), Miscellaneous Tales, No. 4.

38 One of these incidents is the carrying of the hero by birds or the giving of wings to him. For references see Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, pp. 520-522. Another concerns the catching of game by the hero, who feigns death. References for the latter are: Skinner and Satterlee, Menominee Folklore, p. 292; Skinner manuscript, cited ibid., p. 521 (Eastern Dakota, Iowa, and Ojibwa); Jones, Kickapoo Tales, p. 129 (Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo); Jones, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xiv, pp. 225 ff. (Fox); Mooney, Cherokee Myths, p. 293; Dorsey, Thegiha Language, p. 77 (Omaha); Lowie, Assiniboine Tales, p. 107; Radin, Ojibwa Myths, p. 19.

39 Carson, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxx, p. 492 (Ojibwa); Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 243; Hoffman, Menomini Indians, p. 126; DeJong, Odjibwe-Texts, pp. 6, 7.

40 Hoffman, Midewiwn, p. 280 (Ojibwa).

41 Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 487; Skinner manuscript, cited ibid., p. 538 (Plains Ojibwa); Hoffman, Menomini Indians, pp. 118-20, 206; Jack, Journal of American Folk-Lore, viii, p. 193 (Maliseet); Rand, Micmac Legends, Nos. 35, 43, etc.; Hagar, Journal of American Folk-Lore, x, p. 101 (Micmac); Jones, Fox Texts, p. 333; Jones, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxix, 389 (Ojibwa); Schoolcraft, Algic Researches, ii, p. 51 (Ojibwa); Leland, Algonkin Legends, p. 98.

42 Cf. Leland, Algonkin Legends, pp. 66, 130; Hoffman, Menomini Indians, p. 199; Jack, Journal of American Folk-Lore, viii, 193 (Maliseet); Jones, ibid., xiv, pp. 225 ff. (Sauk and Fox); Speck, ibid., xxviii, p. 60 (Micmac); Laidlaw, Ontario Arch. Rep., xxvii, p. 85 (Ojibwa).

43 Radin, Journal of American Folk-Lore, xxvii, p. 359.

44 Hoffman, Menomini Indians, p. 174; Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, p. 249; Schoolcraft, Hiawatha, p. 27 (Ojibwa). With slight variations the story is very widespread, especially among the plains tribes. Cf. Dorsey, Thegiha Language, p. 19 (Omaha).

45 There is hardly an Algonquian tribe that does not tell this series of trickster incidents. Scores of references could be cited. For those of the closely related Algonquian tribes see Skinner and Satterlee, Menomini Folklore, pp. 520-522.

46 See Hoffman, Menomini Indians, pp. 161-2.

47 See Life of H. W. Longfellow, vol. ii, p. 301 (Letter from Schoolcraft to Longfellow).

48 For example, compare the following passages:

Lo! the time has come for Aino
From this cruel world to hasten,
To the kingdom of Tuoni,
To the realm of the departed,
To the isle of tie hereafter.
—Kalevala, Rune 4 (Crawford's translation).

Thus departed Hiawatha,
Hiawatha the Beloved,
In the glory of the sunset,
In the purple mists of evening,
To the regions of the home-wind,
Of the Northwest wind Keewadin,
To the islands of the Blessed,
To the kingdom of Ponemah,
To the Land of the Hereafter!
—Hiawatha, canto 21, end.
Broilo cites other interesting parallels.