2.1 Technology and language learning

In the post-modern, high-tech era, the usefulness of computers as tools to nurture and foster language learning has been confirmed by a growing body of literature. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL), i.e., the “study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning” (Levy, Reference Levy1997: 1), can be traced back to as early as the 1960s. In this approach, a computer can be used as a facilitative tool in all phases of language learning and teaching – from the very first stages of presentation and practice to the final stages of assessment and evaluation. Warschauer and Healey (Reference Warschauer and Healey1998) identified three historical phases of CALL, each phase being influenced by the theoretical climate of that particular era. CALL was used for the first time in the zeitgeist of behaviorism, in the form of presenting a stimulus to the learner and receiving a textual response by means of keyboards with discrete error analysis and feedback. In the second phase – communicative CALL – the focus was on using the language for communicative purposes with grammar being taught implicitly. The third phase was accompanied by role-playing games and interactive tasks and was accordingly labeled “integrative CALL”.

Following Warschauer and Healey (Reference Warschauer and Healey1998), Bax (Reference Bax2003) proposed three general approaches. The first phase, i.e. restricted CALL, is similar to the behaviorist view of Warschauer and Healey (Reference Warschauer and Healey1998) with the difference that it refers both to the underlying theory of learning and to the actual software and tasks in use at the time. The current approach, or open CALL, according to Bax (Reference Bax2003), is more open to using computers. And the third approach, toward which we are moving, is integrated CALL, which implies normalization and “refers to the stage when the technology becomes invisible, embedded in everyday practice” (Bax, Reference Bax2003: 24).

This work has been informed by the integrated view toward CALL and by the interactionist theories of second language acquisition (SLA) whereby the interaction might occur both interpersonally, i.e. among individual learners (or between an individual and the computer) and intrapersonally, i.e. within one’s mind. In the interactionist approach, more attention has been devoted to the cognitive and social aspects of L2 learning. Research has shown that successful implementation of computer-based, interactive, communicative tasks can yield numerous benefits to L2 learners (Beauvois, Reference Beauvois1992; Kern, Reference Kern1995; Smith, Reference Smith2005). With regard to L2 oral performance, Yanguas (Reference Yanguas2010) pointed to the possible differences between oral computer-mediated communication (OCMC) modes and traditional face-to-face communication, was in line with previous studies (Lee, Reference Lee2007; Sykes, Reference Sykes2005) which investigated synchronous OCMC in the classroom as a means to develop L2 proficiency. Furthermore, there is some empirical support for the positive effects of computer-based interactional exchanges on accuracy and complexity of the language produced (Stockwell & Harrington, Reference Stockwell and Harrington2003). Skehan (Reference Skehan2003: 394) also added that “interactive tasks produce markedly more accuracy and complexity”.

On the other hand, some studies have demonstrated that individual differences such as learning style and aptitude could play a role in learning with multimedia (Chun & Payne, Reference Chun and Payne2004; Payne & Ross, Reference Payne and Ross2005). Nevertheless, the problem with most of the current language tasks in CALL programs is that they simply ignore emotions as a potential individual difference factor. Cognitive load theory (Sweller, Reference Sweller2005), as one of the components of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, Reference Mayer2005), claims that as a consequence of the cognitive overload of a task – caused by, among other things, processing tasks which are irrelevant for learning – the learner faces difficulties in information processing. Thus tasks of lower cognitive load, which will be ascertained using animated movies in the present study, provide support for the learner’s mental processing of the content and it becomes less difficult for learners to process and retain the information. With this theory in mind and considering the inseparability of cognition and emotion in SLA (Swain, Reference Swain2013) along with Dӧrnyei’s claim that “the process of learning an L2 is known to be emotionally highly loaded” (Reference Dӧrnyei2009: 184), there is a need for learning programs which incorporate social and emotional tasks that seem more motivating for learners. Before going into detail about the proposed computer-mediated program, I provide an overview of the EI theory and discuss its importance with reference to one’s personal, social and academic life: the possibility of enhancing one’s EI through technology will also be briefly addressed.

2.2 Emotional intelligence

The idea of emotional intelligence is a deep-rooted one, traceable as far back as Platonic dialogues, as can be seen from Plato’s written records: “All learning has an emotional base” (cited in Sharp, Reference Sharp2001: 8). The impetus for the increasing interest in EI, however, began with two seminal articles in 1990 (Mayer, CiPaolo & Salovey Reference Mayer, DiPaolo and Salovey1990; Salovey & Mayer, Reference Salovey and Mayer1990). Mayer and Salovey (Reference Mayer and Salovey1997) enhanced the skill-based model – a theoretical model according to which EI consists of emotional abilities – which was later contrasted with trait-based models, suggesting that EI encompasses a variety of emotional skills, including aspects of personality (Petrides & Furnham, Reference Petrides and Furnham2001). The EI programs proposed in this study are anchored in this latter orientation toward EI skills. It conceives of EI as a multifaceted construct entailing thirteen to fifteen (depending on the model) emotion-related behavioral dispositions which are thought to affect the ways in which an individual would cope with demands and pressures. In addition, the trait EI models measure EI through personality-like questionnaires rather than intelligence-like tests, the ones used in ability models.

The two faculties related to socio-emotional competence – i.e. interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences, as proposed by Gardner (Reference Gardner1993) – are in line with Goleman’s conceptualization of the notion of EI, according to which emotional intelligence is a combination of five characteristics: (1) knowing one’s emotion, (2) managing one’s emotion (i.e., handling fear, anxiety), (3) motivating oneself (emotional control, the ability to delay gratification), (4) recognizing emotions in others, and (5) handling relationships. Goleman’s main idea is that it is possible to enhance one’s emotional intelligence at any time during one’s life’s span.

It has been claimed that EI plays a significant role in determining real-life outcomes and its role has been considered to be as important as (if not more important than) the contribution of general intellectual ability and personality factors (Goleman, Reference Goleman1995). In addition, it is asserted that EI is positively correlated with academic achievement, occupational success and satisfaction, and emotional health and adjustment (Elias, Zins, Weissberg, Frey, Greenberg, Haynes, Kessler, Schwab-Stone & Shriver Reference Elias, Zins, Weissberg, Frey, Greenberg, Haynes, Kessler, Schwab-Stone and Shriver1997; Hawkins, Smith & Catalano, Reference Hawkins, Smith and Catalano2004; Parker et al., Reference Parker, Summerfeldt, Hogan and Majeski2004; Song et al., Reference Song, Huang, Peng, Law, Wong and Chen2010; Stottlemayer, Reference Stottlemayer2002). According to Greenberg, Kusche and Riggs (Reference Greenberg, Kusche and Riggs2004), social and emotional skills may be as critical for the basic knowledge repertoire of all children as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Furthermore, it is thought that, compared to their less emotionally intelligent counterparts, students with high levels of EI might also be more motivated and be high achievers in the classroom (Zins, Payton, Weissberg & O’Brien, Reference Zins, Payton, Weissberg and O’Brien2007).

2.3 Technology and EI

One of the main underlying assumptions of the notion of EI, as proposed by Salovey and Mayer (Reference Salovey and Mayer1990), Gardner (Reference Gardner1993) and Goleman (Reference Goleman1995), is that it is malleable and can be taught and nurtured by specific activities which focus on its constituent skills (i.e., the five key aspects proposed by Goleman, or Gardner’s two socio-emotional faculties). As the focus of this study is on the application of computers to foster EI, the studies discussed here are limited to those which focused on computer-facilitated development of EI or its components.

Among the studies which provide support for the application of interactive video to social skills training, a prime example is the one conducted by Thorkildsen, Allard and Reid (Reference Thorkildsen, Allard and Reid1983), who devised a program to teach social skills, and in particular cooperative interaction skills related to being involved in situations with others. They found that interactive video can facilitate the acquisition of social skills – a finding which was further confirmed by Carrol, Bain and Rystedt (1994). In a study on 72 children with attentional disorders, Carrol et al. (Reference Carrol, Bain and Houghton1994) found a significantly higher level of attention to the videos in an interactive video condition (as compared to a linear video), and there was an increase in the comprehension of the social behaviors being modeled, including initiating interpersonal interaction in classrooms and responding to interpersonal social interactions. In their follow-up study, Bain, Houghton and Carrol (Reference Bain, Houghton and Carrol1995) demonstrated the possibility of nurturing two other emotional skills, i.e., self-awareness of one’s emotion and recognition of the appropriate social response in a given situation, by asking subjects to choose, from the interactive video examples, behaviors which most closely approximated their own behaviors, and then asking which behavior among the examples would have been the most appropriate.

The possibility of developing interpersonal skills was investigated in Holsbrink-Engels’s (Reference Holsbrink-Engels1997) study through what he called computer-based role-playing. She attempted to simplify role-playing with the help of a computer-based tool by practicing the use of a conversational model and offering opportunities for reflection. Goldsworthy’s (Reference Goldsworthy2002) study provides a comprehensive overview of the literature of EI development via technology, and argues that technology can be used to foster learners’ social and social problem-solving skills as they are engaged in tasks at the computer. He also presents the Emotional Intelligence Framework, which guides intervention and prevention efforts in the socio-emotional domain and provides a means for designers, developers, and reviewers to systematically address areas of socio-emotional competence. His STAR project (standing for stop, think, act, reflect) further addresses several key areas of the EI framework. Goldsworthy, Schwartz, Barab and Landa (Reference Goldsworthy, Schwartz, Barab and Landa2007) evaluated the STAR streams curricula and found that it had a statistically significant effect on measures of emotional intelligence in the form of social problem-solving skills, self-efficacy toward conflict resolution, and perceived value and satisfaction with the materials. Therefore, there seems to be good reason to believe that computer-mediated emotional activities may be appropriate tools for raising learners’ emotional intelligence.

2.4 EI and oral fluency

In L2 teaching research, one of the first studies addressing the relationship between emotional intelligence and L2 learning was Aki (Reference Aki2006). He considered EI – i.e., having the ability to recognize, employ, comprehend, and manage emotions – to be more important in language learning than possessing high intelligence, and his findings lend support to the positive effects of enhancing emotional intelligence on SLA, where the enhancement of emotional intelligence was operationalized as stimulating the imagination, humor, and creativity in young language learners. In another attempt, Dewaele et al. (Reference Dewaele, Petrides and Furnham2008) found a negative relationship between trait EI and foreign language anxiety (FLA), defined as “the feeling of tension and apprehension specifically associated with L2 contexts, including speaking, listening, and learning” (MacIntyre & Gardner, Reference MacIntyre and Gardner1994: 284). The authors also found that self-perceived oral proficiency was inversely linked with levels of FLA. In another investigative attempt, Brown and White (Reference Brown and White2010) studied the ways students experienced emotion in learning another language and their approaches to emotion regulation through qualitative case studies, and highlighted the situation-specificity of emotions. Their subjects pointed to different approaches to emotion regulation, from applying productive strategies to sacrificing their language learning to cope with negative feelings experienced in their face-to-face interactions with their language instructor. Méndez López (Reference Méndez López2011), in a qualitative study of students’ emotional experiences in instructed language learning, suggested five main sources for students’ emotions – “their insecurity about their speaking ability, the teachers’ attitudes, comparisons with peers, the classroom atmosphere, and the type of learning activities” (p. 43).

More recently, Abdolrezapour and Tavakoli (Reference Abdolrezapour and Tavakoli2012) found a high positive correlation between achievement in reading comprehension and EI. In addition, greater achievement in reading comprehension was found for those who had been through literature response activities which were used to foster their emotional intelligence. With regard to spoken fluency in L2, Dewaele (Reference Dewaele2002) attempted to investigate the relationship between individual differences and L2 fluency. He conducted a study to find the possible neurobiological causes for synchronic variation in the fluency of L2 production. He argued that this variation might be intra-individual (differing from one situation to another) or inter-individual (differing between users who have been through a similar learning process in a formal setting). His results showed that introverted and anxious L2 users are likely to produce less fluent speech. So, Dewaele pointed that individual differences would affect L2 speech fluency. At the time of writing this article, no study has addressed the relationship between EI and L2 learners’ oral fluency, which can be defined as “the capacity to produce speech at normal rate and without interruption” (Skehan, Reference Skehan2009: 510) or as “the production of language in real time without undue pausing or hesitation” (Ellis & Barkhuizen, Reference Ellis and Barkhuizen2005: 139). Moreover, previous studies testing the effect of EI on L2 were highly contingent upon the teacher and his/her agency, and did not explore the integration of technology into the instructional activities; there is thus a clear need for studies that investigate the role of EI in relation to technology-mediated L2 production.

This study follows two main objectives: (a) to investigate whether EI can be enhanced through computer-mediated activities and whether it has any effects on learners’ L2 oral fluency, and (b) to determine whether the learners’ EI at the start and end of the experiment correlates with their L2 oral fluency.

4.1 Instruments

For the purposes of the present study, a number of instruments were used, which will be described in order. First, to assess oral fluency prior to and after the experiment, a fluency test was administered; this was very similar to the activities during the treatment period. Participants were required to watch a four-minute video (which was the same for the experimental and control groups but differed from the ones they watched in the treatment period) and were then asked to narrate the story of the video. To ensure the suitability of the narrative task for these participants and for our research purposes, experienced teachers and researchers were consulted. Then, following previous studies on oral fluency (Ahmadian, Reference Ahmadian2011; Ahmadian & Tavakoli, Reference Ahmadian and Tavakoli2011; Ellis &Yuan, Reference Ellis and Yuan2004; Yuan & Ellis, Reference Yuan and Ellis2003), the following measures were used:

• ∙ Rate A (number of syllables produced per minute of speech): the number of syllables within each narrative, divided by the number of seconds used to complete the task and multiplied by 60

• ∙ Rate B (number of meaningful syllables per minute of speech): as for Rate A, but excluding all syllables, words or phrases that were repeated, reformulated, or replaced.

Second, as mentioned before, this study focuses on trait EI. Trait EI, assessed by self-report, is regarded as an emotion-related dispositional trait which is a lower-level component of personality (Petrides, Pita & Kokkinaki, Reference Petrides, Pita and Kokkinaki2007). In this study, the short form of the TEIQue (Petrides et al., Reference Petrides, Sangareau, Furnham and Frederickson2006), consisting of 30 items, was used to measure students’ emotional intelligence before and after the experiment. TEIQue-ASF is a simplified version, in terms of wording and syntactic complexity, of the adult short form of the TEIQue developed for use with adolescents aged 12–18 years. All items are sampled from the fifteen subscales of the adult trait EI sampling domain (two items per subscale). The test yields scores on four factors, namely well-being (covering self-esteem, happiness, and optimism), self-control (covering low impulsiveness, stress management, and emotion regulation), emotionality (covering emotion expression, relationships, empathy, and emotion perception), and sociability (covering assertiveness, emotion management, and social awareness), in addition to global trait EI. Example items include “‘I can control my anger when I want to”, “I’m happy with my life”, and “I’m good at getting along with my classmates”. Higher scores on the TEIQue-ASF indicated higher levels of trait EI. We opted for the short version with a ten-minute completion time because we had time limitations and there was a concern that the participants might not be able to complete the longer version as reading a large number of test items may have added unintended cognitive load and may have exposed them to reading difficulties. Subjects responded on a 7-point Likert scale from (1) completely disagree to (7) completely agree. The reliability of the test was found to be relatively high (Cronbach’s α=0.89); factor analyses also provide some support for the construct validity of the questionnaire.Footnote ¹

4.2 Instructional intervention

The instructional treatment for both experimental and control groups took place over an eight-week period, with the primary difference being the type of the focus of the program. To ensure consistent and parallel instruction for all participants, the same instructor taught both groups. The technology-mediated tasks in this study provided the opportunity of performing oral activities by language learners while interacting with the computer as well as with their peers. In this program, first there is a screen with some items (including tasks and movie names) and an on-screen voice which guides the learners through the tasks. Initially, the voice asks them to choose the name of the movie (which differed for experimental and control groups with regard to the story; each is three to five minutes long). Then the movie is shown and subsequently there are some questions regarding the story. The interaction between the learner and the computer happens when the computer asks them to be engaged in the story (as further explained in the experimental or control group activities) or gives them feedback based on the answers they provide or when the learner clicks to move forward, or when he/she requests additional information such as word definitions. The interaction with peers or the teacher is in the form of opinions about the movie or when the program asks them to discuss the answer with peers. Participants of both groups had about nine hours of English per week – three hours for speaking activities, and six hours for reading, listening and writing. There were 24 sessions between the pre- and posttests.

For both groups, the speaking activities followed the same format. This involved watching the movie and answering the follow-up questions, going through the vocabulary review activities provided in the program in which the words and their definitions were displayed on the screen in scrambled order and the students were asked to put them in order, and finally 30 minutes of teacher-led discussion that was related to the theme of the movie and the vocabulary items. At the end of the term (eight weeks), the same test of oral fluency and TEIQue-ASF were administered to subjects of both groups (see Table 1).

4.3 Procedures

Tests of oral fluency and TEIQue-ASF (Petrides, Sangareau, Furnham & Frederickson, Reference Petrides, Sangareau, Furnham and Frederickson2006) were administered to check the equality of the experimental and control groups in terms of trait EI and oral fluency. Learners then went through the eight-week treatment. Since, in this study, the focus is on oral fluency, the tasks needed to be designed in such a way as to highlight the importance of communication and conveyance of the meaning. Subjects in the experimental group were exposed to the EI program to induce them to talk about their emotions and to raise their emotional intelligence.

In the EI program, which sought to educate learners about EI and Goleman’s framework as well as to foster their oral fluency, video clips (as described above) were provided for learners, followed by texts and images in which they were asked to work individually (when they had to provide the answer for the computer by typing or clicking on an item) or collaboratively (when they had to find the answer by discussing it in a group, or when they were asked to work on interpersonal tasks such as finding emotions in others) to find answers which mainly involved emotional background. Four short animated videos were used for the experimental group, all three to five minutes long and silent: Geri’s Game [1997]; Boundin’ [2003]; For the Birds [2000] and One-Man Band [2005]. The idea for applying silent episodes was taken from Ahmadian and Tavakoli (Reference Ahmadian and Tavakoli2011) in which they claimed that using a silent film prevents “‘learners from taking advantage of the immediate exposure to authentic language” (p. 45).

More information about the ways the program introduced Goleman’s EI framework to learners of the experimental group is provided below:

1. 1. Knowing one’s emotions: to make learners aware of their emotions, the program re-showed them some parts of the movie in which the character was feeling an emotion and asked them to find what caused that particular emotion. They were then asked to think about similar situations and their feelings, guided by the instructor, who made it possible for the learners to interact with their peers. In this way they improved their self-understanding. Then they were asked to talk about different emotions and their causes.

2. 2. Recognizing emotions in others: to improve learners’ levels of empathy, the program encouraged them to pay attention to the body language of characters in the movie. In the final stage, parts of the movie which could help learners gain a better understanding of others’ emotions were displayed again. Figure 1 shows two screen shots of the activities and tasks regarding this step. In the first one the on-screen voice asks students to choose the first question. When learners answer question 1, the on-screen voice gives them feedback on their answers. If the learner provides the correct answer s/he can move to the second question, otherwise there will be another question in which the wrong answer provided for the first question is the target answer. For example, in Figure 1 if the learner chooses “depressed” as the correct answer, the next image shows the time the character is depressed and asks the learner to answer this question; then learners are asked to discuss the difference between these two emotions.

3. 3. Managing one’s emotions: to help learners learn how to manage their emotions, there was a pause on a part of movie where the character felt an emotion (e.g., sadness or anger) and then learners were asked to find the cause of that emotion (i.e., what triggered it). They were then asked to watch the rest of the movie and find how that emotion was dealt with and how that strategy influenced their friends and people around them. When the movie ended, a message was shown to learners which asked them to discuss the possible ways of managing that emotion more effectively.

4. 4. Handling relationships: to make students aware of the fourth characteristic of Goleman’s theory, learners were invited to watch parts of the movie again which showed interactions between characters. They were then asked to think about themselves in characters’ positions and to say what their friends could have done to make the character feel better.

5. 5. Motivating oneself: to raise learners’ level of self-motivation, some parts of the movie where characters experienced a positive feeling were shown again and the learners were asked to talk about the ways the characters could change their negative feelings to positive ones. Subsequently, the participants were asked about their feelings in the classroom, what they wanted to accomplish, and the reasons they had for learning the language. Then some general questions about their experiences in learning an L2 were provided to make them aware that some difficulties are common to all students and to prepare them for tackling such difficulties:

1. a. Make some brief notes of your typical thoughts and feelings when you have to learn something you think you are not capable of.

2. b. How do you respond when learning is difficult and you have to do it?

3. c. How do you respond when learning is difficult and you don’t have to do it?

4. d. How can others help you to manage such difficulties?

Fig. 1

Two screen-shots on the tasks given for recognizing emotions in others.

It was assumed that performing such activities and answering these questions would enable learners to become increasingly aware of their emotional states.

As noted above, movies shown to the subjects in the control group were void of emotional themes (for this group we had four other short animated videos: Red’s Dream [1987]; Tin Toy [1988]; Mike’s New Car [2002] and Lifted [2006]; each three to five minutes long). They were asked to watch the movies and narrate the story just like the experimental group, but their program differed in that Goleman’s EI framework was not introduced to them and that they were asked to pay attention to the story rather than characters’ feelings. Moreover, these learners were taught under the ordinary procedures in which no explicit emphasis was placed on emotions during oral communication activities.

4.4 Data collection and data analysis

All participants took a pretest of oral fluency and EI before the instructional period and a posttest after it. All narrations produced by the learners during the oral test were audio-recorded on a PC using a headset microphone and then transcribed by the researcher and two expert research colleagues. The data were then coded for fluency measures (Rates A and B). A sample of 10% of the data transcripts was rated by a second researcher, and an inter-coder reliability mean score of 95% was achieved on all measures. The data obtained through narrations and EI questionnaires were analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) to provide plausible answers to the research questions given earlier. First, descriptive statistics were used and the scores were checked in terms of the normality of distribution using such indices as Kurtosis and Skewness. Then, independent sample t-tests and Pearson Product correlation procedures were performed.