2.1 Notation

All the computations below are performed in Cartesian coordinates with the OX and OY axes lying in the plane of the undeformed membrane and the OZ axis orthogonal to that plane. The vector ${(x_0, y_0, z_0)^{\mathrm{T}}}$ denotes the initial coordinates of the point of the specimen in the undeformed state, while the vector ${(x, y, z)^{\mathrm{T}}}$ denotes the coordinates of the same point at a given moment of time. Let

\begin{equation*}\mathbf{u} = \begin{pmatrix} u \\ v \\ w \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} x - x_0 \\ y - y_0 \\ z - z_0 \end{pmatrix}\end{equation*}

be the displacement vector.

2.2 Assumptions

The membrane is considered to be an object with a characteristic size in one dimension (z) that is several orders of magnitude smaller than in the other two. Due to this fact, only the displacement of the mid-surface of the membrane in considered^{(Reference Liu, Tian, Yan and Hu21)}. Based on this, we suggest that the difference in displacement in z-direction can be neglected:

(1) \begin{equation} \mathbf{u}(x, y, z) = \mathbf{u}(x, y)\end{equation}

Thus, the membrane is effectively a 2D object in 3D space.

Only small strains are considered. Cauchy’s strain tensor in the following form is used:

(2) \begin{equation} \varepsilon_{ij} = \frac{1}{2}\left( \frac{\partial u_i}{\partial x_j} + \frac{\partial u_j}{\partial x_i} \right)\end{equation}

We suppose that the materials are subject to Hooke’s law at the deformation rates considered:

(3) \begin{equation} \sigma_{ij} = C_{ijkl}\varepsilon_{kl}\end{equation}

The assumptions of small strains and linear elasticity up to destruction are generally valid for rigid composites during high-speed interactions^{(Reference Beklemysheva, Vasyukov, Ermakov and Petrov22)}. Other materials may show different behaviour; in this case, they will not be covered by the model presented in this work.

2.3 Stress–strain and strain–displacement relations

We use the following vector notation for displacements in 3D linear elastic theory:

(4) \begin{equation} \varepsilon = \begin{pmatrix} \frac{\partial{u}}{\partial{x}} & \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} & \frac{\partial w}{\partial z} & \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} & \frac{\partial v}{\partial z} + \frac{\partial w}{\partial y} & \frac{\partial w}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial u}{\partial z} \end{pmatrix}^{\mathrm{T}} \end{equation}

However, due to the kinematic assumption in Equation (1), the differential operator $\frac{\partial}{\partial z}$ is always zero over the displacement fields we consider. Considering that, we use the following notation for strains:

\begin{equation*} \varepsilon = \mathbf{Su} \end{equation*}

with the linear differential operator $\mathbf{S}$ defined as

(5) \begin{equation} \mathbf{S} =\left(\begin{array}{c@{\quad}c@{\quad}c} \frac{\partial}{\partial x} & 0 & 0 \\\\[-7pt] 0 & \frac{\partial}{\partial y} & 0 \\\\[-7pt] 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\[-7pt] \frac{\partial}{\partial y} & \frac{\partial}{\partial x} & 0 \\\\[-7pt] 0 & 0 & \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \\ \\[-7pt] 0 & 0 & \frac{\partial}{\partial x} \end{array} \right) \end{equation}

Hooke’s law then takes the form

(6) \begin{equation} \mathbf{\sigma} = \begin{pmatrix} \sigma_{xx} &\quad \sigma_{yy} &\quad \sigma_{zz} &\quad \tau_{xy} &\quad \tau_{yz} &\quad \tau_{xz} \end{pmatrix}^{\mathrm{T}} = \mathbf{D\varepsilon} \end{equation}

with D being the compliance matrix. In the most general case, $\mathbf{D}$ is symmetric and depends on 21 independent elastic moduli.

2.4 Equations of motion

We derive the equations of motion using the virtual work principle. Let us first consider the equilibrium conditions for the unit volume under external loading in the static case. Let $\delta u, \delta \varepsilon$ be variations of the corresponding values. $\mathbf{\overline{b}}$ denotes the distributed external force per unit volume. Then, the virtual work per unit volume is given by

(7) \begin{equation} \delta w = \delta\mathbf{\varepsilon^{\mathrm{T}} \sigma} - \delta\mathbf{u^{\mathrm{T}}} \bar{\mathbf{b}} \end{equation}

With u sufficiently smooth, $\delta\varepsilon = S\delta\mathbf{u}$ . For the transition to the dynamic case, according to d’Alembert’s principle, we add a distributed inertia force:

\begin{equation*}\bar{\mathbf{b}} = \mathbf{b} -\rho\ddot{\mathbf{u}},\end{equation*}

where $\mathbf{b}$ is the distributed load and $-\rho\ddot{\mathbf{u}}$ is the inertia force. Taking this into account along with Equations (5), (6), we get the equation

\begin{equation*}\delta\mathbf{u^{\mathrm{T}}}\left(\mathbf{S^{\mathrm{T}}DSu} + \rho\ddot{\mathbf{u}} - b\right) = 0,\end{equation*}

which must be satisfied for any variation $\delta\mathbf{u}$ . The term in brackets must thus be equal to zero. We finally get the equation of motion as

(8) \begin{equation} \mathbf{S^{\mathrm{T}}DSu} + \rho\ddot{\mathbf{u}} - {\mathbf{b}} = 0\end{equation}

Further expansion of this equation appears inconvenient, in particular when $\mathbf{D}$ is given by more than two independent parameters, as for an isotropic material. On the other hand, precisely those cases are of interest when modelling composite materials. Thus, in the following section, we derive the governing equations for the computational element.

3.1 Domain decomposition

The computational domain corresponds with the physical membrane. An unstructured grid of triangular elements is used. We suppose the thickness h, density $\rho$ and elastic moduli $E, \nu$ of the material to be constant around the element. It is suggested that the external force $\mathbf{b}$ is distributed uniformly in the element. The following values are associated with the vertices: their initial coordinates $(x_0, y_0)$ , the displacements $\mathbf{a}$ and the velocities $\mathbf{v}$ . Figure 1 depicts an example of the domain decomposition.

3.2 Displacement approximation

Consider a triangular element with vertices $(x_0^m, y_0^m), (x_0^n, y_0^n), (x_0^p, y_0^p)$ . Let us denote the displacement vector at vertex i as

\begin{equation*} \mathbf{a}_i = \mathbf{u}(x_0^i, y_0^i) \end{equation*}

Displacements are approximated in the domain of the element as linear functions of the nodal displacements by defining the shape functions $\mathbf{N_i}(x, y, z)$ :

(9) \begin{equation} \mathbf{u}(x,y,z) = \sum_{i \in \{m,n,p\}}{\mathbf{N_ia_i}} = \mathbf{Na} \end{equation}

with $\mathbf{N} = \left[ \begin{matrix} \mathbf{N}_m & \mathbf{N}_n & \mathbf{N}_p \end{matrix} \right]$ , $\mathbf{a} = \left[ \begin{matrix} \mathbf{a}_m \\ \mathbf{a}_n \\ \mathbf{a}_p \end{matrix} \right]$ — displacements of the vertices, as only a linear approximation is considered. Taking (1) into account, one gets

(10) \begin{equation} \mathbf{N}_i = (\alpha_i + \beta_i x + \gamma_i y)\mathbf{E} \end{equation}

with coefficients defined by

(11) \begin{equation} \mathbf{N}_i(x_j, y_j) = \begin{cases} \mathbf{E},\ i = j \\[4pt] \mathbf{0},\ i \neq j \end{cases}\ i,\ j \in \{m,n,p\} \end{equation}

The final coefficients for given shape functions are given by

\begin{eqnarray} \alpha_i = \frac1{S_e}\begin{vmatrix} x_j & y_j \\ x_k & y_k \end{vmatrix} \quad \beta_i = -\frac1{S_e} (y_k - y_j) \quad \gamma_i = \frac1{S_e} (x_k - x_j) \quad S_e = \begin{vmatrix} 1 &\quad x_i &\quad y_i \\ 1 &\quad x_j &\quad y_j \\ 1 &\quad x_k &\quad y_k \end{vmatrix}\notag \end{eqnarray}

3.3 Approximate stress and strain

Let us approximate Equation (4) by substituting the displacement with the approximation from Equation (9)

(12) \begin{equation} \mathbf{\varepsilon} = \mathbf{Su} = \mathbf{SNa} = \mathbf{Ba} \end{equation}

Taking into account the formulas for $\mathbf{N}$ , the matrix $\mathbf{B}$ becomes

(13) \begin{equation} \mathbf{B} = \left(\begin{array}{@{}c@{\quad}c@{\quad}c@{}} \mathbf{B}_1^1 & \mathbf{B}_2^1 & \mathbf{B}_3^1 \\ \\[-7pt] \mathbf{B}_1^2 & \mathbf{B}_2^2 & \mathbf{B}_3^2 \end{array}\right) \end{equation}

(14) \begin{equation} \mathbf{B}_i^1 = \begin{pmatrix} \beta_i &\quad 0 &\quad 0 \\ 0 &\quad \gamma_i &\quad 0 \\ 0 &\quad 0 &\quad 0 \end{pmatrix}, \quad \mathbf{B}_i^2 = \begin{pmatrix} \gamma_i &\quad \beta_i &\quad 0 \\ 0 &\quad 0 &\quad \gamma_i\\ 0 &\quad 0 &\quad \beta_i \end{pmatrix} \end{equation}

Stress and strain are connected via Hooke’s law as expressed in equation (6). Substituting with the equation for deformation from above, one gets

(15) \begin{equation} \sigma = \mathbf{D\varepsilon} = \mathbf{DBa} \end{equation}

In the current implementation, it is possible to define either all 21 independent elastic constants, or, for the case of isotropic material, the Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio $\nu$ . The compliance matrix in the former case has the form

(16) \begin{eqnarray} \mathbf{D} = \begin{pmatrix} \mathbf{D}_1 &\quad \mathbf{0} \\ \mathbf{0} &\quad \mathbf{D}_2 \end{pmatrix}. \mathbf{D}_1 = \frac{E}{(1 + \nu)(1 - 2\nu)} \begin{pmatrix} 1 - \nu & \nu & \nu \\ \nu & 1 - \nu & \nu \\ \nu & \nu & 1 - \nu \end{pmatrix} \end{eqnarray}

\begin{eqnarray} \notag \mathbf{D}_2 = \frac{E}{(1 + \nu)(1 - 2\nu)} \begin{pmatrix} \frac{1-2\nu}2 &\quad 0 &\quad 0 \\[4pt] 0 &\quad \frac{1-2\nu}2&\quad 0 \\[4pt] 0 &\quad 0 &\quad \frac{1-2\nu}2 \end{pmatrix} \end{eqnarray}

3.4 Virtual work for the element

Let us obtain the approximation for Equation (7) by substituting the variations with finite element approximations in Equations (9), (12):

(17) \begin{equation} \delta\mathbf{u} = \mathbf{N}\delta\mathbf{a}, \quad \delta \mathbf{\varepsilon} = \mathbf{B}\delta\mathbf{a} \end{equation}

Taking these into account along with (15), the virtual work Equation (7) becomes

(18) \begin{equation} \delta w = \delta\mathbf{\varepsilon^{\mathrm{T}} \sigma} - \delta\mathbf{u^{\mathrm{T}}} \bar{\mathbf{b}} = \mathbf{\delta a^{\mathrm{T}}}\left(\mathbf{B^{\mathrm{T}} D Ba - N^{\mathrm{T}}} \bar{\mathbf{b}}\right) \end{equation}

Let us integrate the equation over the element volume and introduce fictitious nodal forces $\mathbf{q_i}$ that balance the internal elastic forces and external loads:

(19) \begin{equation} \delta \mathbf{a}^{\mathrm{T}} \left(\int_{V_e}\mathbf{B^{\mathrm{T}} D Ba}\mathrm{d}V - \int_{V_e} \mathbf{N^{\mathrm{T}}}\bar{\mathbf{b}}\mathrm{d}V \right) = \delta\mathbf{a}^{\mathrm{T}}\mathbf{q}_e \end{equation}

Te transition to the dynamic case is done according to d’Alembert’s principle:

(20) \begin{equation} \bar{\mathbf{b}} = \mathbf{b} - \rho \ddot{\mathbf{u}}, \end{equation}

where $\mathbf{b}$ is the external force and $-\rho\ddot{\mathbf{u}}$ is the force of inertia. For acceleration, we use the same approximation as for displacement:

(21) \begin{equation} \ddot{\mathbf{u}}(x, y) = \mathbf{N}(x, y)\ddot{\mathbf{a}}. \end{equation}

Taking into account Equation (20) and (21) for the computational element from Equation (19), one finally gets

(22) \begin{equation} \mathbf{M}_e\ddot{\mathbf{a}} + \mathbf{K}_e\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{f}_e = \mathbf{q}_e \end{equation}

Here, the following matrices are introduced

(23) \begin{eqnarray} \quad\ \mathbf{K}_e = \int_{V_e}{\mathbf{B^{\mathrm{T}}DB}}\mathrm{d}V \text{---stiffness matrix}\end{eqnarray}

(24) \begin{eqnarray} \mathbf{M}_e = \rho\int_{V_e}{\mathbf{N^{\mathrm{T}}N}}\mathrm{d}V \text{---mass matrix}\end{eqnarray}

(25) \begin{eqnarray} \ \ \mathbf{f}_e = - \int_{V_e} \mathbf{N^{\mathrm{T}}b}\mathrm{d}V_e \text{---load vector} \end{eqnarray}

3.5 Global equations assembly

We now have to account for the effect of all the elements to which a certain vertex belongs. Instead of a local displacement vector, defined in Equation (9), consider a $3N_{\rm nodes}$ -dimensional vector consisting of the stacked displacement vectors of each vertex.

Thus, we introduce the global matrices $\mathbf{K}$ and $\mathbf{M}$ with dimensions $3N_{\rm nodes}\times3N_{\rm nodes}$ and the vector $\mathbf{f}$ with dimension $3N_{\rm nodes}$ . They are assembled using the following rules:

(26) \begin{eqnarray} \mathbf{K}_{ij} = \sum_{e}\mathbf{K}^e_{ij} \end{eqnarray}

(27) \begin{eqnarray} \mathbf{M}_{ij} = \sum_{e}\mathbf{M}^e_{ij} \end{eqnarray}

(28) \begin{eqnarray} \mathbf{f}_i = \sum_{e}\mathbf{f}^e_{i} \end{eqnarray}

Here $\mathbf{K}_{ij}$ denotes a $3\times 3$ block of $\mathbf{K}$ , standing at the intersections of the row and column corresponding to the i-th and j-th vertex. $\mathbf{K}_{ij}^e$ is a local stiffness matrix defined above in Sect. 3.4. The summation is over for all the elements containing both the i-th and j-th vertex. The fictitious nodal forces are summed too, and, obviously, the sum equals zero in case of equilibrium. Eventually, one arrives at the following equation for the whole domain, analogous to Equation (22):

(29) \begin{equation} \boxed{\mathbf{M}\ddot{\mathbf{a}} + \mathbf{K}\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{f} = 0} \end{equation}

3.6 Applying constraints

To study pinpoint strikes, we need to constrain the velocity of the strike point. Problems involving a membrane with fixed border may also arise. We shall demonstrate that such constraints can be taken into account without changing the structure of the governing Equation (29). Let us fix node i. In $\mathbf{K}$ , we fill the line $\mathbf{K}_{ik}, k\in \overline{1, N_{\rm nodes}}$ with zeros. In $\mathbf{M}$ , let $M_{ii} = \mathbf{E}$ , and fill the rest of the blocks $M_{ik}, k \neq i$ with zeros. Finally, in the vector $\mathbf{f}$ , we fill $\mathbf{f}_i$ with zeros. As a result, the system now contains an equation $\ddot{\mathbf{a}}_i = \mathbf{0}$ , i.e. $\mathbf{v}_i(t) = \mathbf{v}_{\rm fix}$ . To constrain the displacement, we determine $\mathbf{v}_{\rm fix} = \mathbf{0}$ .

3.7 Time integration

The procedure described above allows us to reduce the initial problem for the PDE to an ODE problem as expressed in Equation (29). We then integrate this equation numerically using the Newmark method^{(Reference Newmark25)}:

(30) \begin{align} \dot{\overline{\mathbf{a}}}_n &= \dot{\mathbf{a}}_n + \tau(1-\beta_1)\ddot{\mathbf{a}}_n \notag\\[3pt] \overline{\mathbf{a}}_n &= \mathbf{a}_n + \tau\dot{\mathbf{a}}_n + \frac12\tau^2(1 - \beta_2)\ddot{\mathbf{a}}_n \notag\\[3pt] \ddot{\mathbf{a}}_{n+1} &= - A^{-1}\left(\mathbf{f}_{n+1} +\mathbf{K}\overline{\mathbf{a}}_n \right),\quad A = \mathbf{M} + \frac{1}{2}\tau^2\beta_2\mathbf{K} \\[3pt] \dot{\mathbf{a}}_{n+1} &= \dot{\overline{\mathbf{a}}}_n + \beta_1\tau\ddot{\mathbf{a}}_{n+1} \notag\\[3pt] \mathbf{a}_{n+1} &= \overline{\mathbf{a}} + \frac{1}{2}\tau^2\beta_2\ddot{\mathbf{a}}_{n+1} \notag \end{align}

If $\beta_2 \geq \beta_1 \geq \frac12$ , the method is unconditionally stable. If $\beta_1 = \frac12$ , then the method has the second order of approximation^{(Reference Zienkiewicz and Taylor23)}. For all the numerical experiments below, the parameter values $\beta_1 = \beta_2 = \frac12$ were used.

3.8 Remarks on computational time

When using the model and the method proposed above, we do not need to create a computational grid through the thickness direction z of the specimen. We address 3D problems, but we represent the specimen using a triangular surface mesh only. This allows us to have fewer vertices and elements in the grid compared with a full 3D model of the membrane, since we do not have vertices in the volume of the specimen. Additionally, the elements of the grid are simpler—triangles in our case, instead of tetrahedrons when using the full 3D geometry, and each vertex in the triangular grid has fewer connections compared with a tetrahedral grid. These facts cause the global matrices $\mathbf{K}$ and $\mathbf{M}$ to have fewer dimensions and be more sparse, compared with full 3D geometry modelling. Numerical solutions for smaller and sparser matrices require less computational time.

3.9 Numerical results

The described method works on arbitrary irregular grids. Figure 2 shows an example of a grid constructed using the gmsh mesh generator^{(Reference Geuzaine and Remacle26)}.

Figure 1.

Sample domain decomposition. Elements $e_i$ and vertices $n_j$ are presented along with corresponding values.

Figure 2.

Example calculation grid.

Figure 3.

Exposure to a point load impulse, showing the dynamics of the involvement of the membrane material in the motion. The colour shows the modulus of the velocity at different points in time: (a) initial state, (b) wave propagation in the membrane, (c) wave reaches the border of the membrane, and (d) wave is reflected from the border.

Figure 4.

Exposure to a point load impulse at an angle of 30 degrees to the normal. The colour shows the modulus of the velocity at different points in time: (a) initial stage of loading and (b) asymmetric deformation.

Figure 3 shows an example of a calculation using this grid. A single central mesh element is impacted at a constant speed directed normal to the membrane plane. The involvement of the membrane material in the movement is shown. It can be seen that, for a symmetric formulation, the solution is symmetric and does not contain numerical artefacts.

The implemented method allows one to model asymmetric load profiles. Figure 4 shows an example of a calculation in which a blow with a constant speed is applied at an angle to the normal. The involvement of the membrane material in the motion and its substantially asymmetric deformation are seen.

Figure 5 shows an example of a calculation using an anisotropic material model. A single central mesh element is impacted at a constant speed directed normal to the membrane plane. The elastic properties of the material are presented in Table 1. The elliptic wave pattern formed due to the anisotropy of the material is seen in the figure.

Table 1

Anisotropic material elasticity matrix: non-zero elements

Figure 5.

Anisotropic material exposed to a point load impulse. The colour shows the modulus of the velocity at different points in time. An elliptic wave pattern is formed due to the material anisotropy. (a) Initial stage of loading. (b) Wave reaches the border of the membrane.

The method not only allows one to obtain the initial membrane dynamics and elastic waves from the shock load, but also can be used to calculate deformations that develop over a considerable time. For example, Fig. 6 shows the result of calculating the deformation of the membrane under the action of a distributed load directed normal to the undeformed membrane and with a modulus

(31) \begin{equation} b(r) = \begin{cases} b_0\cos^2{r}, & r \leq L \\ \\[-7pt] 0, & \text{ otherwise} \end{cases} \\ \quad r = \frac{\pi}{2L}\sqrt{\left(x - \frac{1}{2}L \right)^2 + \left(y - \frac{1}{2}L \right)^2},\ L\text{---membrane size}\end{equation}