Allan and Burridge are also the authors of Euphemism and dysphemism: Language used as shield and weapon (Oxford University Press, 1991). Forbidden words is a follow-up that examines taboo words and expressions in the English language and analyzes a range of relevant linguistic phenomena. The opening chapters treat foundational themes of censorship, face, politeness and impoliteness, political correctness and linguistic prohibition; the later chapters identify and discuss contemporary categories of linguistic taboos.
In the initial discussion, the authors distinguish between censorship and censoring. Censorship attempts to prohibit language artificially, but with varying degrees of success. Observing taboo, an act of self-censoring, is a more powerful suppressant than external restrictions or impositions on language use. Expressions can be categorized as “orthophemistic,” “euphemistic” (both are “preferred” or polite forms), or “dysphemistic” terms (“dispreferred” or tabooed expressions). Euphemisms and dysphemisms are more colloquial and figurative than orthophemisms, which are more direct and formal. Collectively, these are labeled “X-phemisms.”
Jargon, slang, swearing, profanity, insults, and abusive epithets commonly represent “dirty, strong or bad language.” Pejorization is discussed as a process that can create this forbidden language, such as taboo words that are often contaminated by non-taboo homophones. Echoing the claims of their earlier work, the authors observe that negative connotations surpass positive connotations: “There is a general tendency for derogatory or unfavourable denotation or connotation within a language expression to dominate,” regardless of the context (p. 244). Alternatively, political correctness and linguistic prescriptivism attempt to ameliorate language. It is noted that, ultimately, viewing language as offensive, obscure or accurate, acceptable or unacceptable, is based in personal perception. Speakers use figurative language and verbal play to generate X-phemisms as a response to their perceptions of the denotata.
The authors explain that linguistic taboos arise out of synchronic social constraints and are not universal or absolute, but vary across cultures and across time. The book reviews major modern categories of taboos associated with naming, addressing, identity, and belief systems, including ritualized superstition and “magical” words or names that are believed to invoke good luck or cause bad luck. The book examines taboo within the language of sex, gender, sexuality, sexual pleasure, and sexual reproduction. Food- and olfactory-based taboos, prejudices, and superstitions are treated, including avoidance strategies for talking about tabooed foods, and the use of food metaphors to create derogatory epithets. The final category examines taboo words related to disease, particularly stigmatized conditions; and euphemism and dysphemism associated with death, dying, and killing. The general discussion observes additional taboo topics, including discrimination against ethnicity, gender and disability (i.e., sexist, racist expressions, termed “–IST language”). These taboos reveal underlying fear, embarrassment, or repulsion. They are a product of socialization, but many have a rational, practical basis, such as maintaining social harmony.
In conclusion, the authors present extralinguistic evidence to suggest that forbidden words are more stimulating and memorable than all other language stimuli, with implications for areas of linguistic theory, psychology, physiology and neurology.
This insightful book is researched meticulously and interspersed with fascinating examples and explanations of tabooed words and expressions from contemporary English, and historical, cross-cultural and cross-linguistic evidence. This scholarly text is also highly accessible and enjoyable for readers without a background in linguistics.
