Adolescence is characterised by changes in emotions, behaviours, interpersonal relationships, identity formation, and physical development (McGorry et al., Reference McGorry, Purcell, Hickie and Jorm2007; Sawyer et al., Reference Sawyer, Miller-Lewis and Clark2007), and is often the onset of chronic and episodic mental illnesses (Lawrence et al., Reference Lawrence, Johnson, Hafekost, Boterhoven de Haan, Sawyer, Ainley and Zubrick2015). In Australia, one in seven adolescents are experiencing, and one in four are at risk of developing, a severe mental illness (McGorry et al., Reference McGorry, Bates and Birchwood2013; Mission Australia, 2017), and during 2019–20, those aged 12–24 made up 22% of all people receiving Medicare-subsidised services specific to mental health (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2021). Mental illness has adverse impacts on adolescents’ health, social, educational, and employment outcomes (Bowman et al., Reference Bowman, McKinstry and McGorry2017), and to the family unit (Johnson et al., Reference Johnson, Lawrence, Hafekost, Saw, Buckingham, Sawyer, Ainley and Zubrick2016). When left untreated, these impacts can be felt into adulthood (Logan & King, Reference Logan and King2001).

Secondary schools offer wellbeing support for adolescent students, and increasingly this includes professional services (Campbell, Reference Campbell2021), with a push for all Australian secondary schools to have access to a school counsellor (Campbell & Colmar, Reference Campbell and Colmar2014). The experience, background, title, and availability of counselling, social work and psychology staff varies among schools in Australian states and territories (Australian Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools [APACS], 2013; Scarborough & Culbreth, Reference Scarborough and Culbreth2008). Best practice dictates that school counselling and psychology services screen and assess students for signs of mental health issues, and, if identified, refer students to external treatment services (Anderson & Doyle, Reference Anderson and Doyle2005; Rickwood, Reference Rickwood2005). If an external referral is made, parents and those in parent-like roles, such as legal guardians (hereafter ‘parents’), play a vital role in facilitating mental health interventions (Hurley et al., Reference Hurley, Allen, Swann, Okely and Vella2018; Samis et al., Reference Samis, Allan and Echols1993). When parents do not follow up referrals from the school counsellor, students may receive inadequate care, experience ongoing and worsening mental health, families may be stressed, and school counsellors often feel burnt out due to taking on the primary treating role or maintaining the adolescent in the interim (Anderson & Doyle, Reference Anderson and Doyle2005).

Reasons cited for parents not following up referrals include financial costs of therapy, denial, stigma, religious and cultural belief systems, time constraints transporting children to and from appointments, and inability to recognise mental health problems (Dixon De Silva et al., Reference Dixon De Silva, Ponting, Ramos, Cornejo Guevara and Chavira2020; Fazel et al., Reference Fazel, Hoagwood, Stephan and Ford2014; Logan & King, Reference Logan and King2001). Parents’ ability to identify the signs of mental illness (known as mental health literacy [MHL]) is critical in assisting their adolescent to access timely and appropriate support (Jorm et al., Reference Jorm, Barney, Christensen, Highet, Kelly and Kitchener2006; Vaishnavi & Aneesh, Reference Vaishnavi and Aneesh2018). Specifically, MHL is defined as ‘knowledge and attitudes regarding mental health that aid in recognition, management and prevention of mental health issues’ (Jorm et al., Reference Jorm, Korten, Jacomb, Christensen, Rodgers and Pollitt1997, p. 182). Parental MHL is often limited, incorrect, and inconsistent (Hurley et al., Reference Hurley, Swann, Allen, Ferguson and Vella2020), or is perceived by mental health professionals in this way (Frauenholtz et al., Reference Frauenholtz, Conrad-Hiebner and Mendenhall2015). Positive predictors of parents’ MHL have included female gender, higher levels of education, higher income, parents’ perceiving greater severity of their child’s problem, being Caucasian, greater prior experience with mental health services, experiencing their own mental illness, and being a parent of an older adolescent (Bonanno et al., Reference Bonanno, Sisselman-Borgia and Veselak2021; Mendenhall & Frauenholtz, Reference Mendenhall and Frauenholtz2015).

There is scant research on the relationship between parents’ MHL and intention of following up a referral. One large-scale Australian study (Rickwood et al., Reference Rickwood, Mazzer and Telford2015) investigated adolescents’ (N = 30,839) social influences for accessing mental health support and found parental MHL was vitally important. Furthermore, parents’ recognition of mental health issues and being available to listen to their children increased service uptake.

The present study was interested in whether parents’ MHL was related to the intention to follow up a referral from the school counsellor and views of the role of the school counsellor. The traditional view of a school counsellors’ role entails the four Cs of counselling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination activities (Ghaith et al., Reference Ghaith, Banat, Hamad and Albadareen2012; Scarborough, Reference Scarborough2005). ‘Counselling’ refers to conducting individual or group sessions with students concerning mental health, interpersonal, or educational issues, while ‘consultation’ means collaborating with key staff, parents, and external stakeholders, for the benefit of students (Scarborough, Reference Scarborough2005). ‘Curriculum’ activities involve the school counsellor conducting classroom lessons regarding specific topics, such as conflict resolution, while ‘coordination’ calls for the school counsellor to run staff and parent programs, and promote and evaluate the school counselling service (Scarborough, Reference Scarborough2005).

There is limited literature investigating parents’ views of the school counsellors’ role. Kirchofer et al. (Reference Kirchofer, Telljohann, Price, Dake and Ritchie2007) surveyed U.S. parents and found that 78.6% thought a full-time school counsellor was important or extremely important. Wilder and Ray (Reference Wilder and Ray2013) surveyed U.S. parents using an adapted version of the School Counselor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS) to assess parents’ views of the four Cs of counselling (Ghaith et al., Reference Ghaith, Banat, Hamad and Albadareen2012; Scarborough, Reference Scarborough2005). They reported that parents preferred school counsellors to (in order of preference) engage in activities related to coordination, curriculum, counselling, and consultation. Wilder and Ray reported parents were concerned about privacy and lacked skills to engage with school counsellors.

While empirical literature is scant, we suggest that the association between parents’ preferred views of the school counsellor’s roles across the four Cs of counselling with intention to follow up a referral from a school counsellor may play out as follows: If parents endorse preferences for school counsellors to conduct counselling activities, they would be likely to follow up referrals to a school counsellor and may also be likely to follow up a referral to a GP or specialist mental health service, such as a psychologist, as the parents value counselling services and are likely to have developed a trusting relationship with their child’s school counsellor. Alternatively, such parents may not follow up referrals to a GP or specialist service if they think the school counsellor alone should perform the counselling role. Parents who endorse the school counsellor’s consultation role might endorse the counsellor building a network of allied health support services, and therefore may be more likely to follow up a referral within this network. There is no logical reason why parents who endorse consultation activities do not follow up a referral. Parents who endorse the curriculum role may view the school counsellor as a knowledgeable mental health educator, and therefore be more likely to trust their expertise and in turn follow up a referral. Alternatively, parents who endorse the curriculum role within the school may believe the school counsellor’s role does not extend beyond the school and may be less likely to follow up an external referral. Greater parental endorsement of the coordination role may be more likely to follow up a referral from the school counsellor, as such activities would highlight the importance of young people receiving ongoing mental health support and identify the mental health services available. Better parental psychoeducation may infer better MHL, and hence greater likelihood of following up a referral. Alternatively, parents who endorse the coordination role may believe this role should be limited to within the boundaries of the school and be less likely to follow up a referral external to the school.

The present study aimed to explore relationships between parental MHL, parents’ views of the school counsellor role, and intention to follow up a referral from the school counsellor. The study was conducted in an Australian context from a parent perspective and adds to the literature on how parents, schools, and mental health professionals play integral roles in supporting adolescents with mental health issues (McGorry et al., Reference McGorry, Bates and Birchwood2013). While some studies have shown that greater parental MHL is associated with greater likelihood to follow up a mental health referral (Jorm et al., Reference Jorm, Barney, Christensen, Highet, Kelly and Kitchener2006; Rickwood et al., Reference Rickwood, Mazzer and Telford2015; Vaishnavi & Aneesh, Reference Vaishnavi and Aneesh2018), there is scant research on how MHL is linked with parents’ preferred views of the school counsellor role, and how such views might be linked with intention to follow up a referral from a school counsellor. Given the limited prior research, our analyses were largely exploratory in their nature. To test potential associations, our investigation explored relationships between parents’ MHL, preferred ratings of counselling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination activities of the school counsellor (as measured by the SCARS; Wilder & Ray, Reference Wilder and Ray2013), and intention to follow up a referral to the school counsellor, a general medical practitioner (GP), and specialised mental health service, such as a psychologist. Associations between demographic characteristics and parents’ MHL, preferences for the school counsellor role, and intention to follow up a referral were explored.

Method

Participants

Participants were recruited through convenience sampling using the researchers’ social network, social media sites (e.g., Facebook), and the university’s student research platform (SONA). Participants using SONA received course credit. Participants were required to be Australian residents and parents of current secondary school students.

The sample comprised 87 adults; 17 (19.5%) males, 69 (79.3%) females, one (1.1%) nonbinary, and ranged in age from 24 to 67 years (M _age = 47.12 years, SD _age = 7.20 years). Participants’ adolescents comprised 37 (42.5%) males, 47 (54.0%) females, and three (3.4%) nonbinary. Adolescents in their care ranged between 12 and 18 years (M _age = 14.66 years, SD _age = 1.76). Sociodemographic characteristics of participants are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Sociodemographic Characteristics

Note: *Responses included ‘grandparent primary carer’, ‘non-bio mum (partner is bio mum)’, and ‘half-sister/legal guardian’. **Responses included ‘student support officer’, ‘mental health practitioner’, ‘wellbeing’, ‘wellbeing officer’, ‘guidance officer’, and ‘wellbeing coordinator’. ^aReflects participants answering ‘yes’ to this question.

Measures

Mental health literacy

The Mental Health Literacy Scale (MHLS; O’Connor & Casey, Reference O’Connor and Casey2015) assesses recognition, knowledge, and attitudes about mental health, and was developed for use in general Australian populations. The original 35 items were adapted to form a 28-item scale for the present study, with 7 items removed as they were not relevant to the present study (e.g., willingness to live in close proximity to people with mental illness, that is, parents’ own children). The adapted MHLS measured recognition of disorders, knowledge of risk factors and causes, knowledge of professional help available, and knowledge of self-treatments, on 4-point Likert scales (from 1 = Very unlikely/Very unhelpful to 4 = Very likely/Very helpful). Items measuring knowledge of how to seek mental health information and attitudes that promote recognition were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree). Twelve items were negatively worded and were reverse scored. A total summed score was calculated, ranging from 28 to 125, with higher scores indicating greater MHL. O’Connor and Casey (Reference O’Connor and Casey2015) reported excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .87), and good test-retest reliability, r = .79. The present study reported excellent internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha = .85.

Views of the school counsellor role

The School Counsellor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS; Scarborough & Culbreth Reference Scarborough and Culbreth2008) measures views of the four Cs of counselling (Ghaith et al., Reference Ghaith, Banat, Hamad and Albadareen2012; Scarborough, Reference Scarborough2005). The present study used the 38-item parent-adapted version of the SCARS (Wilder & Ray, Reference Wilder and Ray2013). For each item, participants rated their preferred school counsellor activities, that is, counselling (10 items), consultation (7 items), curriculum (8 items), and coordination (13 items). The subscale for other activities (10 items) was omitted as it was not relevant (e.g., the frequency a school counsellor responds to health issues). Participants responded using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never to 5 = Routinely). Composite subscale scores and an overall score were calculated by summing relevant items, with higher scores indicating greater preference for school counsellors to perform these activities. Wilder and Ray (Reference Wilder and Ray2013) reported excellent internal consistency for the subscales, (Cronbach’s alpha = .83 to .93). The present study also displayed superior internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alphas between .87 and .96 for the subscales, and .97 for the overall preferred scores.

Intention to follow up a referral

Vignettes measuring the intention to follow up a referral were adapted from Burns and Rapee (Reference Burns and Rapee2006), with permission. Two vignettes posed hypothetical situations for parents of an adolescent experiencing symptoms consistent with major depressive disorder and generalised anxiety disorder (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Participants were asked to indicate the intention of following up a referral to the school counsellor, a general practitioner (GP), and a specialised mental health service (e.g., a psychologist) and responded to six items, using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Very unlikely to 5 = Very likely). An overall intention to follow up a referral score was calculated across vignettes, ranging from 6 to 30, and subscale (school counsellor, GP, mental health service) scores ranging from 2 to 10. Higher scores indicated greater intention to follow-up a referral. Cronbach’s alpha was .85, showing excellent internal consistency.

Procedure

The study received approval from the Charles Sturt University Human Research Ethics Committee (H21256). Overall, 185 participants started the survey and 87 completed (47% completion rate) the 92-item online questionnaire hosted on the Qualtrics platform (Qualtrics, 2021); starting with demographic questions, followed by the three scales. The questionnaire took approximately 25 minutes to complete. Data collection was undertaken from July to September 2021.

Results

All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 27 (SPSS; IBM Corp., 2020). Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics

Correlations

The relationships between parents’ MHL, overall intention to follow up a referral and demographic variables were investigated using point-biserial correlations for categorical variables (e.g., gender) and Pearson’s correlations for continuous variables (Table 3). Significant negative correlations showed female parents were more likely to follow up referrals to a GP and specialised mental health service than males. No significant relationship was found between parent gender and intention to follow up a referral to the school counsellor. A significant negative correlation showed female parents reported greater MHL than males. Significant positive correlations showed parents with higher levels of education and more experience with mental health, medical, or disability services reported greater MHL.

Table 3.

Correlations Between Demographic Characteristics and Mental Health Literacy and Intention to Follow Up a Referral (Overall and Subscales)

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01.

The relationships between parents’ MHL, preferred counselling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination activities of the school counsellor, and overall intention to follow up a referral were investigated using Pearson’s correlations (Table 4). Greater parental MHL was significantly positively associated with preferred parent ratings of consultation and coordination activities. No significant relationships between parents’ MHL and parents’ preference for counselling and curriculum activities were found. Greater intention to follow up a referral was significantly positively associated with preferred parent ratings of counselling, consultation, and coordination activities. No significant relationship was found between intention to follow-up a referral and parents’ preference for school counsellors to conduct curriculum activities. Greater parents’ MHL was significantly associated with greater overall intention to follow-up a referral.

Table 4.

Correlations Between Mental Health Literacy, Views of the School Counsellor Role (Overall Preferred and Preferred Subscales), and Overall Intention to Follow Up a Referral

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01.

Regression Analyses

To test the combined and differential effects of parents’ MHL and their overall preferred views of the school counsellor role in predicting likelihood of following up a referral, separate multiple regression analyses were conducted for following up referrals to a school counsellor, a GP, and specialist mental health service. Parent gender was included in the regression analyses for intention to follow up a referral to a GP and specialist mental health service as it was significantly correlated with these variables, but not follow-up to a school counsellor.

Intention to Follow Up a Referral to a School Counsellor

A standard multiple regression analysis showed parents’ MHL and overall preferred role of the school counsellor did not significantly predict follow up to a school counsellor, F(2, 81) = 1.94, p = .151. That is, greater parents’ MHL and the preferred views of the school counsellor role did not make significant unique contributions or a significant combined contribution to intention to follow up a referral to the school counsellor.

Intention to Follow Up a Referral to a GP

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis with two steps tested the ability of parents’ MHL and overall preferred role of the school counsellor to predict the intention to follow up a referral to the GP, after controlling for parent gender. At Step 1, parent gender did not significantly predict intention to follow up a referral to the GP, explaining only 2% variance, R = .13, F(1, 82) = 1.47, p = .230. After entry of parents’ MHL and overall preferred school counsellor role at Step 2, the model was significant and total variance explained was 21%, F(3, 80) = 4.12, p < .001. Table 5 shows greater MHL predicted greater intention to follow up a referral to a GP, contributing 15% of unique variance. Overall preferred school counsellor role and parent gender were not significant, contributing 4% and 1% of unique variance respectively.

Table 5.

Hierarchical Multiple Regression: Parents’ Intention to Follow Up a Referral to a GP and a Specialised Mental Health Service

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01. MHL, mental health literacy.

Intention to Follow Up a Referral to a Specialised Mental Health Service

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis with two steps tested the ability of parents’ MHL and overall preferred school counsellor role to predict the intention to follow up a referral to a specialised mental health service, after controlling for parent gender. At Step 1, parent gender explained 2% of variance in intention to follow up a referral to a specialised mental health service, which was not statistically significant, R = .14, F(1, 82) = 1.55, p = .217. After entry of parents’ MHL and overall preferred school counsellor role at Step 2, the model was significant and explained 19% of variance, F(3, 80) = 6.38, p < .001. Table 5 shows greater MHL predicted greater intention to follow up a referral to specialised mental health service and contributed 16% of unique variance. Overall preferred school counsellor role and parent gender were not significant, contributing 1% and 2% of variance respectively.