Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s goods (Tenth Commandment of the Decalogue, Exodus 20,17)
Envy has been recognized as an unpleasant emotion that can arise as a result of an unfavorable comparison with others (Smith & Kim, Reference Smith and Kim2007). Specifically, this emotional experience arises either when a person covets a certain attribute that he/she lacks and that another person possesses, or when he/she wishes that said person did not possess it (Parrott & Smith, Reference Parrott and Smith1993). Thus, it is not surprising that envy is defined, fundamentally, by the presence of feelings of inferiority, injustice, hostility and resentment (Smith & Kim, Reference Smith and Kim2007). From the above, it is obvious that this emotion has an undoubted social nature (Tangney & Salovey, Reference Tangney, Salovey, Maddux and Tangney2010), as it arises in a particular social context, as a result of a disadvantageous interpersonal comparison process. More specifically, and consistently with the central postulates of the theory of social comparison (Festinger, Reference Festinger1954), previous studies have revealed that friends and co-workers are the people who most frequently arouse envy (Navarro-Carrillo, Beltrán-Morillas, Valor-Segura, & Expósito, Reference Navarro-Carrillo, Beltrán-Morillas, Valor-Segura and Expósito2017).
Envy has been linked to innumerable undesirable responses. Previous research indicates that envy is related to poorer personal well-being (Milfont & Gouveia, Reference Milfont and Gouveia2009), lower levels of self-esteem (Smith, Parrott, Diener, Hoyle, & Kim, Reference Smith, Parrott, Diener, Hoyle and Kim1999), lower levels of cooperative behavior (Parks, Rumble, & Posey, Reference Parks, Rumble and Posey2002), and different aggressive responses and behaviors (e.g., Navarro-Carrillo et al., Reference Navarro-Carrillo, Beltrán-Morillas, Valor-Segura and Expósito2017), among other things. Within the organizational context, a recent study conducted with a sample of 385 workers from 25 organizations showed that envy correlated positively with emotional distress, and negatively with cohesion, job satisfaction, performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (Thompson, Glasø, & Martinsen, Reference Thompson, Glasø and Martinsen2015). While such data support the idea that envy may exert a powerful influence in the workplace, the role of malicious and benign envy in such a context has been poorly addressed. Therefore, the present study seeks to fill this void in the literature and, thus, contribute towards the understanding of the implications of envy in the work context, through the analysis of some potential consequences of malicious (vs. benign) envy. More specifically, the present study will focus on the evaluation of emotional hostility, perceived injustice and the inclination to express counterproductive (or harmful) behaviors at work.
Malicious and benign envy
Envy has traditionally been conceptualized as a one-dimensional and dispositional construct (e.g., Smith et al., Reference Smith, Parrott, Diener, Hoyle and Kim1999). In addition, it is worth mentioning that one of the aspects of envy that has captured most of researchers’ attention has to do with the analysis of its darker side (a facet commonly associated with malicious envy). However, it is convenient to emphasize that envy does not constitute a negative emotion per se, as it can promote the development of constructive action tendencies. That is, it could present positive implications (a view traditionally associated with benign envy). In this line, van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters (Reference van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters2011) showed that benign envy motivates individuals to direct their behavior towards the improvement of personal performance. Based on the above, Lange and Crusius (Reference Lange and Crusius2015) developed the Benign and Malicious Envy Scale (BeMas), aimed at evaluating two different manifestations of envy (i.e., benign and malicious envy), and defined by different motivational and behavioral patterns. This distinction is consistent with the double nature usually ascribed to envy (e.g., Palaver, Reference Palaver, Palaver and Steinmair-Pösel2005), and is also evidenced in the semantics of different languages such as Dutch, German or Russian, which have different words to refer to both types of envy (Crusius & Lange, Reference Crusius and Lange2014; Lange & Crusius, Reference Lange and Crusius2015; van de Ven, Zeelenberg, & Pieters, Reference van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters2009). In other languages, such as Castilian, although there is only one word to designate the meaning of envy, the expressions like "good envy" (or healthy envy) and "nasty or bad envy" are commonly used in everyday language (Navarro-Carrillo et al., Reference Navarro-Carrillo, Beltrán-Morillas, Valor-Segura and Expósito2017).
Envy involves strongly unpleasant feelings, which automatically generates the need to mitigate them and, therefore, activates the motivation to reduce the existing separation between the person who envies and the person being envied (Smith & Kim, Reference Smith and Kim2007). The differences between benign and malicious envy have to do, fundamentally, with the type of responses they promote to deal with such negative feelings. Thus, while benign envy is related to improvement and personal effort (van de Ven et al., Reference van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters2011) and is aimed at achieving individual success, malicious envy generates the motivation to denigrate or end the advantage enjoyed by the person envied (Lange & Crusius, Reference Lange and Crusius2015).
Pernicious effects of malicious (vs. benign) envy: Perceived injustice, negative emotions and counterproductive behaviors at work
Numerous studies have discussed the role played by envy in relation to the perception of injustice (Smith, Parrott, Ozer, & Moniz, Reference Smith, Parrott, Ozer and Moniz1994), with negative emotions such as hostility, anger or resentment (Smith & Kim, Reference Smith and Kim2007; van de Ven, Zeelenberg, & Pieters, Reference van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters2012), as well as with counterproductive behaviors (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, Reference Cohen-Charash and Mueller2007).
As far as perceived injustice is concerned, it can arise as a result of the experimentation of envy. The perception of injustice moves people to action, so that when they experience envy they are less willing to cooperate with someone who enjoys an advantage they consider undeserved, with the opposite effect occurring when they perceive that the advantage is deserved (Parks et al., Reference Parks, Rumble and Posey2002). However, it is important to mention that, although literature has frequently treated deserved and perceived justice as interchangeable concepts, some authors suggest that they are different. For example, Hareli (Reference Hareli1999) points out that, although both constructs are the result of a comparison process that seeks equilibrium, its triggering factors are different. On the one hand, deservingness, according to Hareli (Reference Hareli1999), would derive from the fact of comparing a specific situation with what the individual believes that this situation should be, and on the other hand, the perception of justice would derive from the comparison established between two situations with similar characteristics. Thus, while perceived justice would be defined by an objective standard, deservingness would be determined by the subjective perceptions of the person.
Different studies have reported that high levels of envy in the work context are indicative of a greater perception of injustice (e.g., Cohen-Charash & Mueller, Reference Cohen-Charash and Mueller2007; Schaubroeck & Lam, Reference Schaubroeck and Lam2004). For example, Schaubroeck and Lam (Reference Schaubroeck and Lam2004) found that envy towards workmates who got promoted in the company predicted a greater perception of injustice regarding such promotion. Specifically, as far as the different types of envy and the perception of injustice are concerned, the empirical evidence suggests that people who experience malicious (vs. benign) envy tend to consider that they live in an unfair situation and are more likely to express harmful behavior towards the envied person (Sterling, Reference Sterling2013; Sterling, van de Ven, & Smith, Reference Sterling, van de Ven, Smith, Smith, Merlone and Duffy2016).
With regard to negative emotions, previous literature reveals that these tend to originate in the person who envies when faced with what they value in the person envied (Ortony, Clore, & Collins, Reference Ortony, Clore and Collins1988). More specifically, hostility, considered the main component of envy (Smith & Kim, Reference Smith and Kim2007), can promote counterproductive actions (e.g., sabotaging or damaging the person - or group - object of envy through negative comments; Smith et al., Reference Smith, Parrott, Ozer and Moniz1994). With regard to the association between different types of envy and negative emotions, as far as our knowledge is concerned, there are hardly any studies that clearly show the possible differences (van de Ven et al., Reference van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters2012). However, since malicious envy has been conceptualized as a strongly hostile emotion (van de Ven et al., Reference van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters2009), it seems reasonable to suggest that this type of envy triggers higher levels of negative emotions compared to benign envy.
The counterproductive behaviors (or harmful behaviors) in the workplace could constitute a possible response to the perceived injustice and negative emotions resulting from the envy experienced in said context. In fact, recent studies have shown that both envy and the perception of injustice and negative emotions can increase the expression of counterproductive behaviors at work (Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, Reference Chernyak-Hai and Tziner2014; Cohen-Charash & Mueller, Reference Cohen-Charash and Mueller2007; Spector, Fox, & Domagalski, Reference Spector, Fox, Domagalski, Kelloway, Barling and Hurrell2006). This type of hostile behavior, which is intentionally expressed by a member of an organization and perceived by the organization as contrary to its interests (Braun, Aydin, Frey, & Peus, 2016), could represent a means through which the person that envy tries to mitigate the frustration that he/she experiences (Smith & Kim, Reference Smith and Kim2007). Such behaviors have been considered dysfunctional (Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, Reference Chernyak-Hai and Tziner2014), as they include actions such as harassing and marginalizing (Vecchio, Reference Vecchio and Ferris1995), physical aggression (LeBlanc & Barling, Reference LeBlanc, Barling, Fox and Spector2005), theft of objects, hostility, abuse or sabotage (Spector & Fox, Reference Spector, Fox, Fox and Spector2005).
Although envy has been linked to a greater tendency to manifest counterproductive behaviors at work (e.g., Cohen-Charash & Mueller, Reference Cohen-Charash and Mueller2007), there are hardly any studies that have analyzed the role of the different types of envy (malicious and benign) in relation to said behaviors. However, recent research suggests that people who experience malicious (vs. benign) envy tend to show more counterproductive work behaviors. For example, Braun et al. (2016) found that malicious envy was positively related to the manifestation of counterproductive behaviors, finding a negative association for benign envy. Based on these findings, it can be expected that the experimentation of this type of envy may lead to more counterproductive work behaviors than benign envy.
The present study
In general, the purpose of the present study is to contribute towards increasing the knowledge on the implications of envy in the work context. More specifically, it intends to help the advancement of the psychological literature on the consequences of malicious and benign envy at work. To do so, a study is designed through which the effect of the manipulation of the two types of envy (malicious vs. benign) in the perception of injustice, negative emotions and the inclination to express counterproductive behaviors at work toward the envied coworker is analyzed. It is expected that in the condition of malicious (vs. benign) envy, the participants will: (a) present higher levels of perceived injustice (Hypothesis 1); (b) experience higher levels of negative emotions (Hypothesis 2); and (c) show higher levels of counterproductive behaviors at work (Hypothesis 3). In addition, the present research goes beyond examining the simple effects of malicious (vs. benign) envy in the constructs mentioned above, proposing a conceptual model that systematizes the way in which malicious (vs. benign) envy is related to perceived injustice, negative emotions and counterproductive behaviors in the workplace (Figure 1). Given that perceiving that a situation is unfair can trigger emotions and negative affective states (see Jackson, Kubzansky, & Wright, Reference Jackson, Kubzansky and Wright2006), this model will test whether the effect of malicious (vs. benign) envy on counterproductive work behaviors is sequentially mediated by perceived injustice and negative emotions. Thus, it is expected that both the perception of injustice and negative emotions act as sequential mediators of the relationship between malicious (vs. benign) envy and counterproductive behaviors (Hypothesis 4).
Conceptual model that shows the indirect effect of multiple steps between the condition of envy (malicious vs. benign) and the manifestation of counterproductive behaviors at work through perceived injustice and negative emotions; Condition of Envy: Benign Envy = 0, Malicious Envy = 1. *p < .05, ***p < .001
Method
Participants
The initial sample consisted of 213 (140 women and 73 men) participants from the general population aged between 18 and 68 years (M = 31.05, SD = 10.01). Twenty-three participants were excluded from the analysis either because they did not complete the corresponding experimental condition, or because their comments indicated that they did not respond seriously to what was requested in the condition. Thus, the final sample was 190 participants (127 women and 63 men) with an average age of 31.09 (SD = 9.68, range of 18 to 68). The majority of the participants were employed (64.7%), 25.3% were university students and, finally, 10% were unemployed. Regarding their economic income, 34.3% of the participants indicated that their salary was less than € 1,000 per month; 57.7% received between € ,1000 and € 2,000; 7% received between 2,000 and 3,000 €, and 0.9% between 3,000 and 4,000 €. Regarding their level of studies, 73.7% of the participants reported having undergone university studies, 10.5% had studied vocational training, 9.5% had completed high school studies, 3.2% had completed compulsory studies and another 3.2% had only completed primary education.
Procedure and design
Participants voluntarily completed an online questionnaire through the Qualtrics software, posted through different platforms and social networks. The questionnaire informed the participants that the general purpose of the present study was to examine “different emotional processes”. Participants were never told that the ultimate goal of the present study was to analyze the consequences of envy at the workplace. Before starting, the participants were duly informed of the confidentiality and anonymity of their answers, and were asked to indicate their agreement to participate in this experiment. Once the online questionnaire was completed, participants were thanked for their participation and were provided with the email address of one of the researchers responsible for the study so that, if they so requested, they could be further informed about the details of the study.
A factorial, between-subjects design was used, manipulating two levels (malicious vs. benign envy), and randomizing both conditions.
Instruments
The online questionnaire was composed of the following measures of interest:
Sociodemographic data
Information was collected regarding age, gender, income, educational training and employment.
Experimental manipulation (malicious vs. benign envy)
This manipulation, in addition to being based on the previous literature on the generation of episodic envy (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, Reference Cohen-Charash and Mueller2007), also intended to capture the meaning of the items of the Benign Envy and Malicious Envy Scale (BeMaS, Lange & Crusius, Reference Lange and Crusius2015).
On the one hand, to elicit the emotion of malicious envy, the participants were presented with the following information:
“Please, think about a coworker from your company or work center with whom you compare yourself frequently. Briefly describe a situation in which, given the work achievements of your coworker, you have felt uncomfortable or upset and have wished that it would go badly and your coworker would lose what he/she had achieved. If you have not experienced any situation like the one indicated above, please imagine and describe a similar situation”.
On the other hand, in order to generate the emotion of benign envy, the participants were presented with the following information:
“Please, think about a coworker from your company or work center with whom you compare yourself frequently. Briefly describe a situation in which, given the work achievements of your coworker, you have encouraged yourself to work harder to motivate yourself and achieve your own goals in the future. If you have not experienced any situation like the one indicated above, please imagine and describe a similar situation”.
Perception of injustice
This construct was evaluated through the Objective Injustice Beliefs Scale (Smith et al., Reference Smith, Parrott, Ozer and Moniz1994), adapted to the work context (e.g., "Anyone would agree that my work colleague’s advantage was unfairly obtained"). This instrument consists of 3 items, with a Likert type response format that ranges from 1 (totally disagree) to 9 (totally agree). Regarding the range, the minimum score was 1 and the maximum 9. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained in this study was .93.
Negative emotions
The negative emotions of anger, hostility, resentment, hatred and contempt were evaluated, as previous literature has suggested that such emotions could be related to envy (e.g., Smith & Kim, Reference Smith and Kim2007). Participants were asked to indicate the degree to which they felt these negative emotions in response to the previously described event (e.g., “To what extent did you feel / would you feel contempt towards your work colleague?”). The response format used was Likert type, ranging between 1 (not at all) and 7 (totally). Regarding the range, the minimum score was 1 and the maximum 7. The scores obtained in these items were grouped into a single variable referring to negative emotions, obtaining a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .94.
Counterproductive behaviors at work
A reduced version of the Counterproductive Work Behaviors Scale previously used by Cohen-Charash and Mueller (Reference Cohen-Charash and Mueller2007), was adapted in the present study to the person object of such behaviors (i.e., work colleague). It consists of 12 items (e.g., "I would try to sabotage my work colleague’s reputation"), with a Likert response format that ranges from 1 (not representative at all) to 7 (very representative). In relation to the range, the minimum score was 1 and the maximum 7. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .92.
Verification of the manipulation
In order to determine whether the experimental manipulation worked properly, the participants were asked to what degree the work situation carried out by the envied work colleague they described in their corresponding experimental condition gave rise to: (a) "motivation to reach your own goals in the future"; and (b) "discomfort when perceiving their achievements". A Likert-type response format was used that ranged from 1 (not at all) to 7 (totally).
Analyses Strategy
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was carried out to test the effects of the envy condition (malicious vs. benign) on the perception of injustice, negative emotions and the propensity to express counterproductive behaviors at work. Moreover, in order to determine whether perceived injustice and negative emotions mediated the effect of the envy condition (malicious vs. benign) on the counterproductive behaviors, a multiple serial mediation analysis was carried out (Figure 1, Table 1) using model 6 of the PROCESS program described by Hayes (Reference Hayes2013).
Multiple Mediation Analysis of the Condition of Envy, Perceived Injustice and Negative Emotions on Counterproductive Behaviors in the Workplace
Note: SE: standard error; I1 = EC → PI → CB; I2 = EC → PI → NE → CB; I3 = EC → NE → CB; Symmetric BCI: Symmetric Bootstrapping Confidence Interval.
*p < .05, ***p < .001
Results
Manipulation check
To determine whether the experimental manipulation used was appropriate, a Student t-test was carried out for independent samples with the variable “type of condition” as IV, and the manipulation questions “motivation to reach your own goals in the future”, and “discomfort when perceiving his/her achievements”, as DV.
The results showed a main effect in the manipulation question that made reference to the motivation to reach your own goals in the future, t(188) = 4.66, p = .001, 95% CI [.75, 1.84], d = 0.67, so that the condition of benign envy (BE) generated a greater motivation in the envious person to achieve his/her personal goals in the future, in comparison to the condition of malicious envy (ME), M BE = 5.80, DT = 1.72 vs. M ME = 4.51, SD = 2.09. Likewise, a main effect was also observed in the manipulation question referring to discomfort when perceiving your colleague’s achievements, t(188) = –5.96, p < .001, 95% CI [–2.07, –1.04], d = 0.85. Higher scores were found for this question in the ME condition compared to the BE condition (M ME = 3.74, DT = 1.98 vs. MB BE = 2.18, DT = 1.61). Therefore, said results confirm the adequacy of the experimental manipulation.
Effects of envy (malicious vs. benign) on perceived injustice, negative emotions and counterproductive work behaviors
In order to determine whether the participants of the malicious (vs. benign) envy condition had higher levels of perceived injustice (Hypothesis 1), higher levels of negative emotions (Hypothesis 2), and higher levels of counterproductive work behaviors (Hypothesis 3), a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was carried out with the "envy condition" and "gender" as IVs, and the "perception of injustice", "negative emotions" and "counterproductive behaviors" as DVs. As can be noted, the potential effect of gender on the different DVs was also contrasted. In this regard, it is noteworthy that no significant effect of gender or any interaction effect between condition X gender were found for perceived injustice, negative emotions or counterproductive work behaviors.
Results showed a main effect of the perceived injustice condition, F(1, 186) = 33.27, p <. 001, ηp2 = .15. This effect indicates that in the condition of malicious (vs. benign) envy, the participants perceived to a greater extent that the achievements obtained by their work colleagues were unfair (M ME = 4.92, SD = 2.77; M BE = 2.56, SD = 2.27), thus confirming Hypothesis 1. Similarly, the results also revealed a main effect of the condition of negative emotions, F(1, 186) = 41.14, p < .001, ηp2 = .18. Therefore, in the condition of malicious (vs. benign) envy, the participants experienced higher levels of negative emotions towards the envied workmate (M ME = 3.53, SD = 1.81; M BE = 1.94, SD = 1.32), which verifies Hypothesis 2. Footnote 1 Finally, the results showed a main effect of the condition on the counterproductive work behaviors, F(1, 186) = 34.35, p < .001, ηp2 = .16, revealing that in the condition of malicious envy, compared to the benign envy condition, the participants were more inclined to show counterproductive behaviors towards the envied workmate (M ME = 2.29, SD = 1.19; M BE = 1.45, SD = 0.66), thus corroborating Hypothesis 3.
Mediating effect of perceived injustice and negative emotions on the relationship between envy (malicious vs. benign) and counterproductive work behaviors
In order to verify Hypothesis 4, according to which perceived injustice and negative emotions would successively mediate the relationship between the type of envy experienced (0 = benign envy, 1 = malicious envy) and the expression of counterproductive work behaviors (Figure 1), a model 6 of multiple serial mediation of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, Reference Hayes2013) was applied. This model allows sequential testing of the indirect effect of the condition on the counterproductive work behaviors through perceived injustice and negative emotions. The nonparametric bootstrapping procedure with 10,000 repetitions was used to estimate the 95% confidence intervals.
The variables introduced into the model predicted 39.7% of the variance of the tendency to manifest counterproductive work behaviors. As shown in Figure 1 and Table 1, the estimated route of the model (from a 1 to b 2, with the exception of b 1) was significant (ps < .001 or where the Bootstrap Confidence Interval does not include the value 0), indicating that there is a relationship between the predictor variables and the criterion variable.
The results showed that malicious (vs. benign) envy and negative emotions (.320 and .319) positively influenced the expression of counterproductive work behaviors. However, contrary to the initial predictions, the effect of the perceived injustice on the counterproductive behaviors was not significant (p > .05), which indicates that the perceived injustice was not associated to the manifestation of counterproductive behaviors (Figure 1; Table 1).
Likewise, the total effect of malicious (vs. benign) envy on counterproductive behaviors was .831 (c in Figure 1 and Table 1). This value consists of the direct effect of malicious envy (c’ = .320) and the sum of all indirect effects in the model (Total Indirect Effects = .511).
With the exception of the first indirect effect (which includes the value 0 in the bootstrap confidence interval), all indirect effects were significant (Table 1), confirming the sequential mediation of both variables on the effect of malicious (vs. benign) envy in the counterproductive behaviors. More specifically, the first indirect effect (Envy Condition (EC) → Perceived Injustice (PI) → Counterproductive Behaviors (CB) was not significant. That is, PI did not affect the relationship between the EC and the CB. However, the second indirect effect (EC → PI → Negative Emotions (NE) → CB) was significant, which shows that malicious (vs. benign) envy leads to a greater perception of injustice, so that such perception of injustice is related to higher levels of negative emotions, which, in turn, are associated with a greater manifestation of counterproductive work behaviors. Finally, the third indirect effect (EC → NE → CB) was also significant. This indicates that malicious (vs. benign) envy raises higher levels of negative emotions, which in turn results in a greater inclination to manifest counterproductive work behaviors.
Pairwise comparisons of the indirect effects showed statistically significant differences among all, except between EC → PI → NE → CB, and EC → NE→CB. In this way, a greater indirect effect is observed in EC → PI → NE → CB, than in EC → PI → CB, (–.221, 95% CI [–.48, –.04]); and a greater indirect effect between EC → NE → CB, than in EC PI CB (–.272, 95% CI [–.53, –.03]). Therefore, the strongest indirect effect was obtained by EC → NE → CB, followed by EC → PI → NE → CB, showing the smallest effect in EC → PI → CB.
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to examine the pernicious consequences of the envy emotion in the workplace. More specifically, the focus was placed on the experimentation of two types of envy (malicious vs. benign) and their relation to perceived injustice, negative emotions and the propensity to manifest counterproductive behaviors towards the envied workmate/colleague.
The results obtained revealed that malicious (vs. benign) envy was related to a greater perception of injustice regarding the achievements of the envied coworker. Previous studies found similar results. For example, Cohen-Charash and Mueller (Reference Cohen-Charash and Mueller2007) found that the experimentation of high levels of episodic envy was associated to a greater perception of injustice with respect to the work event that triggered that emotion. However, the present research expands this data by indicating that the mere activation of a personal experience of malicious (vs. benign) envy in the workplace leads to perceiving the advantage of the envied coworker as more unfair.
Regarding negative emotions, the results also showed that malicious envy is more strongly related to negative emotions compared to benign envy. This is a novel result as, although envy has been related to different negative emotions (e.g., Spears, Ellemers, & Doosje, Reference Spears, Ellemers and Doosje2005), the possibility that negative emotions could be experienced with different degrees of intensity according to whether malicious or benign envy is being experienced had not been analyzed to date. In addition, this finding is consistent with the literature that considers malicious envy as a hostile manifestation of the emotion of envy (van de Ven et al., Reference van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters2012).
In relation to the counterproductive work behaviors, the results showed that people who experience malicious (vs. benign) envy have a greater tendency to show counterproductive behaviors towards the envied coworker. Despite the scarce research carried out on the pattern of relationships between malicious (and benign) envy and this type of harmful behavior, the results obtained serve to expand recent correlational data suggesting that malicious envy, compared with benign envy, could be channeled through the manifestation of counterproductive behaviors, especially when this emotion takes place in the workplace context (Braun et al., 2016).
Finally, and in regard to the conceptual model initially proposed, the results obtained deepen the systematization of relations between the two types of envy studied, the perception of injustice, negative emotions and counterproductive work behaviors. The findings obtained reveal that both perceived injustice and negative emotions serially mediated the effect of malicious (vs. benign) envy on the personal inclination to express counterproductive behaviors. In other words, experiencing malicious (vs. benign) envy leads to perceiving the advantage of the work colleague as more unjust, which in turn is associated with higher levels of negative emotions and, subsequently, a higher propensity to manifest counterproductive behavior towards the envied coworker. Such findings help to clarify the process by which malicious (vs. benign) envy is related to the manifestation of this type of harmful behavior in the workplace. In addition, these results extend previous findings that suggest, on the one hand, that the perception of injustice can lead to negative emotions (Jackson et al., Reference Jackson, Kubzansky and Wright2006) and, on the other hand, that this type of emotions can negatively impact the relationships that are established in the organizational environment (Spector et al., Reference Spector, Fox, Domagalski, Kelloway, Barling and Hurrell2006).
However, it should be noted that, although perceived injustice and negative emotions sequentially mediated the effect of the envy condition on counterproductive behaviors, the mediating effect of the injustice was not significant when analyzed individually. That is to say, it seems that the perception of injustice per se does not lead to the expression of counterproductive behaviors, given that it needs negative emotions to lead to the expression of such behaviors. In this regard, and according to Hareli (Reference Hareli1999), the idea that deservingness, in comparison with the perception of injustice, could better explain the effects of malicious (vs. benign) envy on counterproductive behaviors, is plausible. That is, while injustice involves a comparison of a concrete situation with other similar situations, deservingness implies a personal judgment of the situation regarding what the individual considers that it should be. Likewise, it is possible that the perception of injustice in relation to the personal experience of envy described is directed not so much towards the coworker but towards the procedures (and those responsible for them) that determined the disadvantage perceived by the participants (Schaubroeck & Lam, Reference Schaubroeck and Lam2004). In addition to the aforementioned, future studies should test the possible differential effects of the experience of both forms of envy both in terms of deservingness and perception of injustice, and should explore the specific role of both constructs in negative emotions and the production of aggressive behaviors in the organizational context.
Although the obtained findings suppose an advancement in the literature on envy (malicious vs. benign) in the work context, some limitations of the present study should be addressed. For example, an incidental sampling procedure was used to obtain the sample. However, the experimental approach implemented allows to establish causality in the effect of malicious (vs. benign) envy on the dependent variables of interest. Likewise, it is worth mentioning that although a large majority of the sample was represented by employed participants, university students and unemployed persons also took part, that is, people who may not have had the opportunity to work yet.
Future studies, in addition to replicating the results of the present study in other countries, using the manipulation of the two manifestations of envy that have been developed, could also evaluate the possible moderating role of variables related to self-concept (e.g., self-esteem) or those related to personality factors (e.g., neuroticism). That is, constructs that could moderate the mediating effect of the perception of injustice and negative emotions in the relationship between malicious (vs. benign) envy and counterproductive behaviors (Shu & Lazatkhan, Reference Shu and Lazatkhan2017). It would also be interesting for future research to evaluate the causal effects of malicious and benign envy in different measures related to perceived (in)justice (e.g., procedural justice, deservingness, etc.), other measures related to the processes of social comparison (e.g., relative deprivation) and different attitudes and aggressive behaviors. Finally, and although the present results support the notion that malicious (vs. benign) envy leads to more negative results, it would be advisable to corroborate the supposed positive nature of benign envy, as recent studies suggest that both types of envy could be malevolent (Lange, Paulhus, & Crusius, Reference Lange, Paulhus and Crusius2017).
In sum, the present study contributes towards filling the void in the literature on the consequences of malicious and benign envy in the organizational domain. In this sense, it provides data of great importance for the work context, given that it demonstrates how malicious envy, in comparison with benign envy, produces greater pernicious effects for the person who envies, for the person envied and for the internal functioning of organizations, as well as the possible explanatory psychological mechanisms.
