Introduction

Music psychological literature has only recently started to consider the teaching and learning of expressiveness in music performance through empirical and detailed analyses. There is empirical evidence that searching to communicate emotions through music is common at any level of learning (e.g., Juslin & Laukka, Reference JUSLIN and LAUKKA2004), that the intention of professional musicians is often to express emotions (Lindström et al., Reference LINDSTRÖM, JUSLIN, BRESSIN and WILLIAMON2003), and that expert musicians are able to express specific emotions through the manipulation of music elements such as tempo, articulation, dynamics and timbre (Juslin et al., Reference JUSLIN, KARLSSON, LINDSTRÖM, FRIBERG and SCHOONDERWALDT2006; Viellard, Roy & Peretz, Reference VIELLARD, ROY and PERETZ2012; Timmers & Sadakata, Reference TIMMERS, SADAKATA, Fabian, Timmers and Schubert2014). As stated by Berman (Reference BERMAN and Berman2000), ‘the pianist needs to know what physical actions influence sound and in what way’, as he thinks that every musician, in general should know what sounds are linked with specific emotions.

The ability of communicating emotions, as well as other forms of expressiveness, in music performance is sometimes wrongly assumed as natural and not susceptible to be improved with training (Broomhead, Reference BROOMHEAD2006; Lindström et al., Reference LINDSTRÖM, JUSLIN, BRESSIN and WILLIAMON2003; Williamson, Reference WILLIAMSON, Fabian, Timmers and Schubert2014). This assumption may be related to the implicit nature of emotional communication, which complicates its transmission or training (Sloboda, Reference SLOBODA and Ericsson1996). According to the congruence of emotion theory (Foa & Kozak, Reference FOA and KOZAK1986), the emotional state active at a given time would guide the cognitive structures to be used, favouring aspects such as recall of information, attention to stimuli or production of responses, also congruent with the active mood. Likewise, according to Bower (Reference BOWER1981), the ease in activating a concrete emotion (e.g., fear) would depend on the type and amount of concepts related with that emotion in long-term memory and on the strength of the connection between those concepts. Thus, emotions involved in music are strongly determined by our previous learning, and appear automatically, and information related to emotional content is more easily stored and less likely to be forgotten (Talmi et al., Reference TALMI, SCHIMMACK, PATERSON and MOSCOVITCH2007). As stated by Chaffin, Logan, and Begosh (Reference CHAFFIN, LOGAN, BEGOSH, Hallam, Cross and Thaut2009), this involves that

This line of reasoning suggests that when expressiveness is taught to arise ‘from within’ the efficacy of a performer's expression is determined by the play of emotional interactions that are involuntarily activated, influenced by what happened before, what could happened after, who is listening to the performance, and so on. In support of this idea, Minassian, Gayford and Sloboda (Reference MINASSIAN, GAYFORD and SLOBODA2003) found that up to 60% of public performances of a group of young high-level musicians were considered as inadequate by themselves, despite very high pre- and post- expectations according to their preparation. Also Van Zijl and Sloboda (Reference VAN ZIJL and SLOBODA2010) found that the role of emotions of performers changed when they achieved an expressive performance: ‘the conveyance of the previously constructed interpretation towards an audience seemed to take centre stage – rather than the performer's own emotional experience’. Likewise, the verbal and nonverbal behaviours of both students and teachers play a relevant role in their personal interactions and in the pedagogical outcomes of music learning (Zhukov, Reference ZHUKOV2012; Ivaldi, Reference IVALDI2014). Explicit consideration of affect and emotion questions could therefore facilitate general learning, not only expressivity skills. This is for example evident in the effect of drama training programmes, where explicit consideration is given to emotion and affect in communicative expression in public (e.g., Nicholson, Reference NICHOLSON and Nicholson2000). Notably, training in acting techniques and collaborating with actors improved self-confidence, creativity and presence in the performance of musicians (Rea, Reference REA2015).

In music curricula, a systematic approach to the teaching and learning of expressivity seems lacking, and consequently its training depends on conceptions, beliefs or opinions about its relevance, and about the best method of training, of each teacher (Karlsson & Juslin, Reference KARLSSON and JUSLIN2008). A recent study about conceptions and practices of music teaching and learning showed a strong focus on transmission of musical and technical knowledge rather than on a promotion of musical understanding and expressiveness using a constructivist approach (De López-Íñiguez, Pozo & De Dios, Reference DE LÓPEZ–ÍÑIGUEZ, POZO and DE DIOS2013). Even when the curricula are based on constructivist principles, as in the UK, in practice a behaviourist approach is still often employed (Garnett, Reference GARNETT2013). Teaching in music classes seems to be mostly focused on learning specific skills instead of on constructing concepts and developing understanding (Ofsted, 2009). Investigations related to the teaching of expressivity similarly suggest that a behavioural approach is the dominant practice (Karlsson & Juslin, Reference KARLSSON and JUSLIN2008). In a small sample study, Meissner (Reference MEISSNERin press) found a variety of approaches, including auditory modelling, the use of metaphors, movements and gestures, and teacher's enquiry and discussion. Whatever teaching approach is employed, its success may depend on the conceptions and beliefs about expressiveness held by the teachers and students of music. In that sense, knowing the conceptions of expressiveness is a first step in developing and enhancing a teaching method. Little empirical work is available that has analysed this issue.

Currently, expression is understood as a multidimensional construct including emotional communication, but also stylishness, quality and expressiveness within particular musical parameters (Schubert & Fabian, Reference SCHUBERT, FABIAN, Fabian, Timmers and Schubert2014). As defined in the Grove Music Online (Kovalef Baker, Paddison & Scruton, Reference KOVALEF BAKER, PADDISON and SCRUTON2016): ‘In its simplest sense, the term “expression” is applied to those elements of a musical performance that depend on personal response and that vary between different interpretations’. In this study, hereafter, the main focus will be on emotional expression, the way in which music communicates emotions to listeners.

Different factors have been considered in the literature as potentially affecting expressivity in music and its teaching and learning. For the goals of the present work, we will focus on those in which there is no consensus, where a heterogeneity of responses as well as differences between teachers and students can be expected. Thus, there is still some controversy regarding to what extent (emotional) expressivity can be learned, whether it depends on innate talent, and if it can or cannot be explicitly addressed in class. Whereas music achievement and talent for music have been thought to depend partially on genetic and epigenetic factors (Chaffin & Lemieux, Reference CHAFFIN, LEMIEUX and Williamon2004), it is clear that early experiences, preferences, opportunities, habits, training, and practice are paramount for musical development (Howe, Davidson & Sloboda, Reference HOWE, DAVIDSON and SLOBODA1998). Developing musical expressivity is not an exception, given the evidence that indicates that explicit instruction improves expressivity (Juslin et al., Reference JUSLIN, KARLSSON, LINDSTRÖM, FRIBERG and SCHOONDERWALDT2006; Woody, Reference WOODY1999, Meissner, Reference MEISSNERin press), but it seems that this is not a generally shared belief. Other factors relevant to the teaching-learning of expression in music include the idea that a) expression in music is just or mainly a matter of technique (Karlsson & Juslin, Reference KARLSSON and JUSLIN2008); b) musical elements (tempo, timbre, etc.) are associated in specific ways or not with the production of specific emotional outcomes (see Juslin & Timmers, Reference JUSLIN, TIMMERS, Juslin and Sloboda2010 for a review of the evidence on this topic); c) different stylistic periods are associated with different expressive elements, and a specific piece should be studied on that basis (e.g., Daynes, Reference DAYNES2010); d) the age of the student affects the way of expressively studying a piece, and language for expressive terms should be adapted (Tan, Pfordresher & Harré, Reference TAN, PFORDRESHER, HARRÉ, Tan, Pfordresher and Harré2010); e) and that playing by memory affects the expression achieved (Chaffin, Logan & Begosh, Reference CHAFFIN, LOGAN, BEGOSH, Hallam, Cross and Thaut2009).

In her review of the consideration of emotion in music education, Susan Hallam (Reference HALLAM, Juslin and Sloboda2010) highlighted the lack of research in this field and suggested several lines for further research in order to fill that gap, including pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions. As stated by Casa-Mas, Pozo and Montero (Reference CASAS–MAS, POZO and MONTERO2014), investigating the beliefs and conceptions of the different agents of musical education should be a central goal for research, which has not been the case yet for expressiveness. To address this gap, this work aimed to analyse the extent to which certain beliefs and concepts of expressivity were held by music performers and to explore sub-groupings of these beliefs and conceptions. Additionally, the aim was to compare these conceptions between students and professors participating in advanced instrumental courses in a conservatory. With this goal in mind, a questionnaire was developed consisting of questions related to potential beliefs of musicians about factors affecting expressiveness. Given the lack of previous studies comparing these groups this study has an exploratory character, and no hypotheses were formulated a priori.