The relevance of Pindaric myth to its literary and historical context is a problem presented by many of Pindar's odes.Footnote ¹ In the case of Pythian 4 it is the plea for the return of Damophilus that has proved difficult to relate to the myth of the Argonautic expedition – so much so, that some scholars have denied that any connection exists between the myth and this part of the ode.Footnote ² Those who seek to establish a correlation between the myth and the plea have, for the most part, considered parallels between the relationship, circumstances, and character traits of Jason and Pelias and those of Arcesilas and Damophilus.Footnote ³ The limitations, however, of looking for exact correspondence are generally acknowledged. Carey in particular postulates that Pindar ‘simply presents in the myth a number of themes, any or all of which may be applied to the situation in Cyrene’.Footnote ⁴ It is the contention of this article that the theme of hospitality, as it develops in the myth, is central to understanding the relevance of the myth to the plea for Damophilus.

Pythian 4 begins and ends with allusions to the institution of hospitality. The first line of the ode subtly refers to the obligation (χρή, ‘it is necessary’) of a ϕίλος (‘friend’) to stand by his ϕίλος in his hour of need.Footnote ⁵ It is a convention of the poet to speak of his praise as an obligation and refer to his patrons as friends;Footnote ⁶ nevertheless, ϕίλος bears effective connotations of mutual αἰδώς (‘respect’) and obligation – values pertaining to the institution of hospitality – that cannot be disregarded.Footnote ⁷ Within the frame of this social ritual, the notion of ϕίλος especially indicates the requisite behaviour of a member of a community towards a stranger, a xenos.Footnote ⁸ This notion of ϕίλος is, as I hope to demonstrate, particularly apt to this ode. The poetic convention, in this case, is functional: it foregrounds the theme of hospitality, a theme that has been noted to run as a connecting thread through the ode and reverberates until the very last word, ξενωθείς (‘having received hospitality’).Footnote ⁹

The aim of this article is to examine the theme of hospitality as it emerges primarily in two prominent scenes of the ode, the encounter between Triton-Eurypylus and Euphemus, and the meeting of Pelias and Jason. In addition, the article explores the relevance of this theme to the circumstances of this peculiar ode, which seeks to affect the historical situation that prompted its composition. It will be argued that the theme of hospitality, generally relevant as it is in an ode where the notion of nostos (‘return home’) is prevalent,Footnote ¹⁰ is instrumental in bringing about the official closure of the Damophilus affair.

The encounter between Eurypylus and Euphemus (20–37) is one of the most vivid images of the ode.Footnote ¹¹ The scene has been put into relief, as it is set off from its context by ring composition.Footnote ¹² In apparent contrast with the economical nature of the ode,Footnote ¹³ it has been elaborated beyond what is strictly necessary for what has been considered its ostensible purpose: the consolidation of the monarchy in Cyrene.Footnote ¹⁴ It will be helpful to go through the scene in detail. In lines 20–3 the poet succinctly describes the transaction between Euphemus and a god, who has assumed the appearance of a mortal. The hero descends from the ship in order to receive the clod of earth that the god offers as a guest-gift (ξείνια). An auspicious clap of thunder by Zeus seals the transaction. All the elements that support the claim of the Battiad dynasty to the monarchy are here: the offering of earth signifies the surrender of sovereignty of the foreign land to the recipient, an ancestor of the present king, Arcesilas. Furthermore, Zeus's favourable omen is proof of the divine approval of the monarchy.Footnote ¹⁵ The description of the encounter might as well have ended here. After a brief interruption, however, to explain the Argonauts' whereabouts, the poet returns to the encounter, and gives a developed account of it (28–37).

This second account is an elaboration on a theme initiated by a detail, unnecessary at that point, in the former description, where the offering of earth was emphatically called ξείνια (‘guest-gift’). In lines 28–37 the poet meticulously depicts the encounter as a scene of hospitality, albeit an unusual one. The god is pictured at the outset as an exemplary host by his attitude, which is cheerful (ϕαιδίμαν) and respectful (ἀνδρὸς αἰδοίου) (28–9). The adjective αἰδοῖος (‘respectful’, out of αἰδώς) is significant of the mutual feeling that is appropriate to the reception of strangers.Footnote ¹⁶ As soon as he meets the company he addresses them with friendly words (ϕιλίων ἐπέων / ἄρχετο). The content of his utterance is summarized by the poet (30–1): ξείνοις ἅ τ' ἐλθόντεσσιν εὐεργέται / δεῖπν' ἐπαγγέλλοντι πρῶτον (‘[words] with which benefactors first offer a meal to strangers who have arrived’). The emphatic position of πρῶτον at the end of the line and the strophe highlights the propriety of the invitation by indicating its total conformity to custom, according to which a host must first invite a stranger to dinner, postponing inquiries as to his identity and business until later.Footnote ¹⁷ By virtue of his proper behaviour, Eurypylus is categorized by the poet among εὐεργέται (‘benefactors’).

The kind invitation is refused, on the grounds that the Argonauts are in a hurry to get home (presumably lines 32–3 render the Argonauts' reply to the invitation). A refusal of a meal never occurs in Homeric scenes of hospitality.Footnote ¹⁸ But the circumstances here are exceptional, and the ode an economical one. It is repeatedly stressed throughout the scene that the Argonauts were on the point of departing before the encounter with the god, who came suddenly upon them just as they were lifting the anchor (25).Footnote ¹⁹ The crew were already aboard and Euphemus had to descend from the ship in order to receive the gift – this is said both at the beginning of the account (22): πρῴραθεν Εὔϕαμος καταβαίς (‘Euphemus, having descended from the prow’) and at the end (36): ἥρως ἐπ'ἀκταῖσιν θορών (‘the hero having jumped on the shore’). Eurypylus, being in reality a god, knows (γίνωσκε) that their excuse is not a false one and does not seek to detain them. In this respect also his picture as the ideal host is enhanced, as a detaining host, being an obstacle to the visitor's nostos, transgresses the rules of the convention.Footnote ²⁰

After the refusal of the meal, the god identifies himself as Eurypylus, son of Poseidon, and engages in a last act that rounds off his presentation as the perfect host. In observance of the hospitality etiquette he wishes to offer a parting guest-gift (ξένιον).Footnote ²¹ Owing to the circumstances, he offers the only one at hand: a clod of earth. The gift would have been a trivial one indeed, had the giver not presented himself as Eurypylus, the mythical King of Libya. Coming from him, the clod is a symbol of sovereignty over the land, as the king would be the only person who would have authority to make a gift of it. The feeling of αἰδώς (‘respect’) that the situation requires and that the attitude of the god inspires is presumably the reason why Eurypylus does not fail to persuade (οὐδ' ἀπίθησέ νιν) Euphemus to agree to the inconvenience of disembarking from the ship in order to receive the gift. The poet zooms in on the detail of the touching of hands (37), as Eurypylus passes the clod to Euphemus by pressing his hand, in a gesture typical of hospitality scenes where a host first makes physical contact with his visitor by grasping his hand.Footnote ²² Under the circumstances, the pressing of hands both initiates and seals the guest-friendship between Eurypylus and Euphemus.Footnote ²³

The encounter between Triton-Eurypylus and Euphemus, which supports the Battiad dynasty by projecting a divine origin of the monarchy in Cyrene, is fashioned into a hospitality scene. From a series of acts that comprise a proper hospitality scene, the poet has selected the offering of food and the parting guest-gift,Footnote ²⁴ both of which portray Eurypylus as a generous host, an εὐεργέτης (‘benefactor’) and a ϕίλος (‘friend’). This portrait is further emphasized by his understanding of the strangers' haste and his not seeking to detain them.

The meeting of Pelias and Jason occupies a central position in the ode. It has attracted much attention, primarily with regard to the numerous possibilities of parallels with the historical situation in Cyrene that it offers.Footnote ²⁵ The initial meeting is informed by typical components of hospitality scenes (78–100). The arrival of the stranger, a typical element of hospitality scenes,Footnote ²⁶ is described in detail (78–93). As is the rule in Homer, Jason's arrival is indicated by a form of ἱκνέομαι (‘to come’): ἵκετ' at 78, ἱκόμαν at 105, ἱκάνω at 118.Footnote ²⁷ A description of the activities of the inhabitants of the place upon the stranger's arrival, another common feature of hospitality scenes,Footnote ²⁸ is briefly given here: the people are gathering in the agora as Jason approaches (85).

The amazement expressed by the citizens (ὀπιζομένων) as Jason advances in their midst is not uncommon in arrival scenes in Homer, where, however, it is reserved for sudden appearances, such as that of Priam in the dwelling of Achilles (Il. 24.483) and that of Odysseus at the knees of Queen Arete in the palace of Scheria (Od. 7.144–5). The verb ὀπίζομαι employed here to render the people's reaction, implies a deep, strong emotion, a mixture of amazement and fear. It is used in the Odyssey for the awe that one, even a god, should feel when faced with the wrath of Zeus.Footnote ²⁹ Apprehension at the arrival of a stranger, who may be hostile, is natural; all the more so since there is the possibility that the arrival is a god in disguise.Footnote ³⁰ Jason's extraordinary appearance gives the people a strong impression of divinity,Footnote ³¹ so much so that they contemplate various divine or semi-divine identities for the newcomer. Their commonplace reaction serves as a foil to the unusual reaction of Pelias which follows immediately.

Pelias approaches hurriedly, in the manner of Homeric hosts,Footnote ³² and immediately interrogates Jason, before the people of Iolkos (97–9). His inquiries have been variously regarded as insulting or commonplace.Footnote ³³ Their gist is certainly based on the Homeric model of questioning a stranger: τίς ποθεν εἶς ἀνδρῶν; πόθι τοι πόλις ἠδὲ τοκῆες; (‘Who are you among men? Where is your city and parents?’).Footnote ³⁴ In the Homeric scenes, however, such questions conform to a conventional model that makes use of no qualifying adjectives of the stranger's human nature or parentage (neither χαμαιγενής [‘earth-born’] nor any other qualification occurs) and no graphic details of one's birth; although there is the request for one to answer the host's questions truthfully, this is not coloured by emotive words such as ἐχθίστοις (‘most hateful’) or καταμιάναις (‘defiling’), which would imply fault in the stranger's character.Footnote ³⁵ The qualifying adjectives and charged words used by Pelias are intended to stress in every way Jason's human nature and hint at the possibility of doubtful character, to the effect that they trivialize the impression that Jason has made on the people of Iolkos, whose comments Pelias may have heard of. Had Jason been a god in disguise, Pelias would have been running the risk of offending a deity.

The overall impression of impropriety of Pelias' questions is greatly exacerbated by their timing. The immediate questioning of a stranger upon arrival is a blatant disregard of the rules of hospitality, according to which the stranger must be fed before inquiries are made into his identity and business.Footnote ³⁶ The only precedent for such breaching of the hospitality ritual in Homer takes place in the cave of the Cyclops, whose immediate interrogation (not hostile or insulting per se) upon first sight of the strangers in his cave (9.251–5) prefigures his subsequent destructive comportment.Footnote ³⁷ Like the Cyclops, Pelias addresses Jason as a stranger (ὦ ξεῖν') but refrains from treating him properly as such.

An indication as to the cause for such deviating behaviour is given by the text, and is to be found in the effect that Jason's single sandal produces on Pelias, as soon as his gaze focuses on it (παπτάναις). The host's sighting of the stranger, a marked element in Homeric hospitality scenes,Footnote ³⁸ is manipulated by the poet to fit the demands of the scene. Pelias is blind to Jason's magnificent appearance, in which all he can see is the single sandal. The sight astounds him (τάϕε). The verb used indicates that Pelias was amazed for reasons other than those of the people. Occasionally, in Homeric scenes of hospitality the sighting of the visitor is signified by the relatively rare ταϕών (instead of the usual ὁρᾶν).Footnote ³⁹ In the scenes where ταϕών is used, it is remarkable that the host has been intensely engaging in some other activity while the newcomer approaches and so does not notice him until he stands very close.Footnote ⁴⁰ In all these instances the subject drops whatever he is doing in order to welcome the visitor. The participle ταϕών expresses the temporary confusion of a mind which, absorbed in a certain activity, has a momentary difficulty in perceiving and dealing with a new situation that presents itself. The other instances of the use of the participle, as well as the periphrasis τάϕος ἕλε (‘astonishment seized’), also indicate the subject's status at quick and sudden transition from one situation to another.Footnote ⁴¹ We may suppose that Pelias arrived swiftly, intent on welcoming the visitor, but, dazed by the view of the single sandal, became scared,Footnote ⁴² forgot his manners, and delved straight into what was most crucial for him – the stranger's identity. His untimely questioning marks him as an improper host. It is his preoccupation with his own fear that makes him disregard the basics of proper conduct and puts him on a par with a mythical monster, outside the boundaries of civilization. Revelation of a stranger's name comes as a counter-gift for a host's hospitality.Footnote ⁴³ In this case no hospitality is offered and Jason aptly reveals his name not to the inquiring Pelias but to the people (116–18).

The encounter between Pelias and Jason is in many respects a reversal of that between Eurypylus and Euphemus. In the latter, the lawful king of the country offers sovereignty to a stranger, while in the former the unlawful usurper of the throne treats the newly arrived lawful heir as a stranger and withholds sovereignty. Consequently, Euphemus accepts a kingdom that is offered to him but Jason has to request his right to the throne back. Eurypylus, who is really a god in disguise, offers hospitality to humans, while Pelias, a human, denies it to a man who looks like a god. The reversals are all the more apparent as the participants in the encounters share some common characteristics: both hosts are sons of Poseidon and the parties in each scene are kin. Eurypylus and Euphemus are really half-brothers, as they both are sons of Poseidon. Pelias is also a son of Poseidon and Jason's uncle.Footnote ⁴⁴ The nexus of similarities and reversals sustains the interrelatedness of the scenes, which are thematically connected and give insight into each other in the manner of hospitality scenes in the Odyssey, which ‘relate to one another synchronically, interacting with, anticipating and recalling, and variously informing one another’.Footnote ⁴⁵ The poet has selected the most important constituent parts of a hospitality scene and employs each one so as to underline qualities in his characters, based on their observance or lack thereof of the hospitality ritual. Eurypylus, the lawful king, is αἰδοῖος (‘respectful’) and εὐεργέτης (‘benefactor’), a proper host, a ϕίλος (‘friend’) generously offering hospitality. Pelias, the usurper of the throne, fails to meet the requirements of an important social ritual because of his fear on account of his past.

The banquet proffered by Eurypylus and withheld by Pelias is actually offered by Jason and marks his transition from xenos-stranger (78, 97) to xenos-host.Footnote ⁴⁶ He receives his visiting kin with ‘gentle words’ (μειλιχίοισι λόγοις);Footnote ⁴⁷ in the manner of Homeric heroes, he offers them ‘appropriate hospitality’ (ξείνι'ἁρμόζοντα τεύχων) for five days, before discussing business with them (127–33).Footnote ⁴⁸ Jason, like Eurypylus and unlike Pelias, is αἰδοῖος and εὐεργέτης.Footnote ⁴⁹

The question of the relevance of the motif of hospitality to the ode as a whole and the circumstances of its performance must now be addressed. Arguably, the encounters between Eurypylus and Euphemus on the one hand and Jason and Pelias on the other have been moulded into the framework of hospitality scenes so as to project positive and negative models of relevant behaviour for Arcesilas to consider.Footnote ⁵⁰ Arcesilas is the host of the feast where the ode is performed. Instructions as to proper behaviour at his own feast would, however, be both inappropriate and irrelevant – unless we consider the historical circumstances that prompted the composition of this ode and its peculiar character as a plea for the return of the exile Damophilus.Footnote ⁵¹

The plea for Damophilus occupies the final part of the ode (263–99). Though no supplication words are used (until εὔχεται, ‘prays’, at 293) the language and attitude assumed by the poet on behalf of the exile are those of Homeric supplication scenes, where suppliants, using ‘soft words’ (μειλιχίοις ἐπέεσι), strive to win over the persons supplicated and bring about a change of their mind. The suppliants have recourse to various means to this effect. They adopt a posture of humility, thus appealing to the benevolence and pity of the supplicated; they invoke services rendered in the past and seek to acquire respect; they make offers, promises, and gifts; they flatter. The person supplicated is under great pressure, which is expressed by the almost exclusive use of the imperative.Footnote ⁵² The pathetic image of the marred oak and its fate (263–9), the mythological paradigm of Atlas (289–90) – both implying excessively oppressive circumstances – and the explicit reference to Damophilus' loss of property and exile (290), as well as the reference to Zeus's delivery of the Titans, stress the exile's pitiful condition and make an appeal to Arcesilas' compassion and charitableness.Footnote ⁵³ The reference to the widespread recognition in Cyrene of Damophilus' justice (279–90) may be an implicit reference to past services to the palace, while his general praise (279–87) indicates that he is worthy of respect. The poet promises that Damophilus will not stir up any more trouble (284–5; see also 296–7). His final remark (298–9) hints at the offering of this ode as a gift. Throughout this pleading part of the ode the poet flatters Arcesilas (262, 270, 275). At 293, εὔχεται (‘he prays’), which is appropriate to prayers to gods and unusual in supplications between humans, actually envisages Arcesilas as a god.Footnote ⁵⁴ The pressure exercised on Arcesilas by the ‘soft words’ of the plea is evident in the imperatives used to instigate cognitive and practical action on the part of the king: γνῶθι (‘know’, 263), χρή … ἀμϕιπολεῖν (‘it is necessary to treat gently’, 271), τλᾶθι … θέμεν (‘dare to place’, 276), πόρσυν' (‘heed’, 277).

Damophilus is a suppliant, and at the same time a xenos – a stranger who begs to be received into the community.Footnote ⁵⁵ Conceivably, besides the notion of healing apparent in the poet's admonition to Arcesilas to act by ‘applying a soft hand’ (μαλακὰν χέρα προσβάλλοντα, 270), there is an echo of the host's traditional gesture to elevate a suppliant to the level of a guest by taking him by the hand.Footnote ⁵⁶ The image is reminiscent of an earlier touching of hands, one that sealed the guest-friendship of Eurypylus and Euphemus. The impression is reinforced by the use of ἕσσαι (‘make to sit’), as forms of the verb ἵζω (again, ‘make to sit’) are commonly used in Homeric hospitality scenes to describe the seating of visitors.Footnote ⁵⁷ The poet is in effect urging Arcesilas to be αἰδοῖος (‘respectful’) and εὐεργέτης (‘benefactor’) to Damophilus by raising him from the position of a xenos-stranger to that of a xenos-guest, thus becoming his ϕίλος (‘friend’) again. The mythical paradigms of hospitality have provided the background for this plea.Footnote ⁵⁸

Supplication is not made at a distance;Footnote ⁵⁹ also, it demands an immediate response. Commentators have long agreed that the plea for the return of Damophilus is a nominal one, as the king had unofficially agreed to recall the exile beforehand and the reconciliation which the ode admonishes has already been effected.Footnote ⁶⁰ One critic has postulated that Damophilus has already arrived in Libya unannounced, with the king's permission, bearing the ode as a peace offering.Footnote ⁶¹ This would mean that Damophilus is already at Cyrene as the ode – his gift – that pleads for his return is performed, officially still a xenos, waiting for the king's formal permission to resume his place openly as astos, a citizen. His return would be splendidly initiated by his reception as a guest at the banquet where the ode is performed, perhaps the very banquet described at 294–6.Footnote ⁶² Such swiftness of action would correlate with the manner of the characters' action in the ode, where everything, once decided upon, is done immediately; Arcesilas, then, would be acting as a hero.Footnote ⁶³ Moreover, the appearance of the exile at the place of feasting just as the ode that pleads for his return ends and his acceptance in the feast according to the hospitality ritual would be a spectacular demonstration of the king's magnanimity and willingness for political reconciliation,Footnote ⁶⁴ as well as of his confidence in his legitimate power and fearlessness as regards former enemies.

The theme of hospitality permeates the final lines of the ode, which envision Damophilus established at Arcesilas' table and engaged in friendly conversation with the king. In an echo of another typical element of hospitality scenes, where, among other types of narrative, reports of news from abroad are an immediate means to reciprocate hospitality,Footnote ⁶⁵ the restored Damophilus is visualized as recounting to Arcesilas his own experience of hospitality at Thebes.