H.d.J. provides a clear summary of his project in his introduction. Asserting the ‘study of the relationship between Orphism and Christianity has been at a standstill since the 1930s’ (p. 9), he explains why he intends to reopen the subject and how he hopes to avoid some earlier missteps and mistakes. One aspect of the legacy of modern fascination with Orphism has been to see it in contrast with Christianity, for better or worse (depending on the scholar or reader). To some minds Orphism was, in a sense, Christianity's predecessor. To others, Orphism was Christianity's competitor. Many scholars assumed that the two systems were engaged in some kind of mutual influence or exchange.
Attempting to reframe the discussion, H.d.J. first summarises the history of scholarship, especially calling attention to particular approaches, from the apologetic to the sceptical. He then addresses the difficulty of definitions. Noting that the answer to the question ‘what is Orphism?’ is no simpler or more obvious than answering ‘what is Christianity?’ he explains that Orphism, like most religious and philosophical movements (including Christianity), was not one single coherent or discrete system, with uniformly followed rituals. Its long history, from the Classical period to the Roman Imperial age, makes it defy simple classification. In this regard, H.d.J. sets out to problematise the expressions, ‘Orphism’ and ‘Orphics’. His conclusion is to propose Orphism as a common denominator among a series of different groups, including Pythagoreans, Dionysian practitioners and initiates into the Eleusinian mysteries (p. 30).
Having addressed the problem of terminology or identity, H.d.J. goes on to define his task. While establishing some important background in Chapter 1, he presents the documentary evidence for Orphism in the Imperial Age – the period that would have overlapped with the establishment and growth of Christianity. Here he addresses the references to Orphic myths and practices in such non-Christian writers as Diodorus and Apuleius. He also evaluates the incorporation of Orphic traditions in Neoplatonism. This discussion forms an excellent basis for exploring his primary interest: the parallels and/or influences of Orphism on early Christianity.
Thus, following a chapter-length study of the non-Christian testimonies, he turns, primarily, to the references to Orphism in early Christian sources (dating from the third to the fifth century). While most of these are documentary, he also refers to material or visual artefacts, including the representation – in Christian catacombs – of a lyre player with a Phrygian cap or the carved gem with a crucified figure named ‘Orpheus Bakkikos’ (illustrated on p. 126).
He divides the Christian sources into three groups: Apostolic Fathers, Apologists and Church Fathers, although he sees all of them as taking an apologetic stance, at least in respect to their treatment of Orphism. Beginning with Justin Martyr, he notes ways these writers refer to Orpheus or Orphism. Historians of ancient Christianity will not need the brief introductions to his sources, but they will find the compendium of citations extremely useful and their analysis very insightful. The roll includes Tatian, Athenagoras, Theolophilus, Tertullian, Origen, Lactantius and – most importantly – Clement of Alexandria, whose two works, the Protrepticus and the Stromateis, offer crucial data, including some fragments of Orphic works, as well as details regarding the cult of Orpheus in the East at the beginning of the third century c.e. Later authors, including the Latin fathers Jerome and Augustine, reflect the spread of the Orphic tradition to the West, and its perceived threat (or attraction) to Christian converts. For example, in his treatise, the City of God, Augustine sees Orpheus as the ‘principal theologian of pagan belief’ and regards him as a danger, since he apparently believes him to be highly appreciated in both pagan and Christian circles (p. 138).
H.d.J.'s thorough study of references to Orphism or Orpheus in the Christian documents delineates places where the authors are working from second-hand information and notes the instances where important and genuine material on Orphism may be gleaned. He summarises the polemical nature of most of the material, but carefully assesses the distinct or innovative shifts in some of the writers' attitudes. He convincingly outlines what he calls a ‘Christian recreation of Orphism’ (p. 265), which is a model for how other scholars might perceive the Christian reception of other Graeco-Roman cults or myths.
The final question is what one might learn from reading this careful analysis of early Christianity's encounter with Graeco-Roman religious culture, particularly with a cult that shares some parallel themes and philosophical constructs. This is a far more sophisticated, documented and analysed study than many of the older works on the relationship between Christianity and the so-called mystery cults, and one can hope that it will prompt similar studies of the various salvation systems and saviour cults of Late Antiquity.
It is difficult to find anything to criticise in this book. One could have hoped for more attention to iconography and other material remains, but that is a minor (and perhaps idiosyncratic) complaint. This work is extremely well organised and beautifully written (even in translation). Historians of Christianity will appreciate it as a well-documented and groundbreaking presentation of the complex religious context of early Christianity. Classicists and ancient historians will gain a better understanding of the complicated development of Christian doctrine in a world that was deeply concerned with how humans might transcend mundane realities and even death itself.
