2.1 English, Indonesian and indigenous languages

The main body of research on the linguistic ecology of English language education in Indonesia constitutes an examination of the relationship between English, Indonesian as the national language, and indigenous languages.

Some studies are concerned with attitudes towards English. Murtisari and Mali's (Reference Murtisari and Mali2017) study is a case in point: they conducted research involving 333 students attending schools in Salatiga, Central Java. The findings of the study show polarizing views towards English. While believing in the positive value of English for international outreach, the participants also raised concerns about the negative impact of English on Indonesian language and culture. More elaboration on the impact of English on Indonesian language and culture is available in Manara (Reference Manara2013). Manara reported on a study where 18 participants offered their opinions on the issue through in-depth interviews. The participants acknowledged the significant role of English in the globalized world, while highlighting socio-economic, cultural and pedagogical tensions that required them to continuously struggle. The data suggested a linguistic hierarchy in which English is considered to be a more prestigious and attractive language than Indonesian. Participants demonstrated the need for a critical evaluation of the current institutionalization of English in order to consider the local and global relations dimension of globalization that underpins English teaching in Indonesia. This requires the incorporation of language awareness, sociolinguistic understanding, pragmatics and intercultural competence.

Dewi (Reference Dewi2012) conducted a study involving university staff and students from nine universities in Jogjakarta. The participants did not see English as a manifestation of imperialism; neither did they perceive the language to be carrying values that threaten national identity. Despite feeling the imposition of English upon them, the participants in Dewi (Reference Dewi2011) expressed their desire to learn and use the language for social mobility and upward economic trajectory. This is done while they continuously negotiate their identities as both Indonesians and English users, a phenomenon which Dewi called a ‘distinctive Indonesian identity’. Such a positive attitude towards English is also captured in Zein (Reference Zein2019). He stated that Indonesia's multilingual context dictates a move towards multilingual education. Multilingual education acknowledges English as a global language that opens the door to upward social and economic mobility. By the same token, it places equal importance on the promotion of Indonesian as the national language as well as the maintenance of heritage and indigenous languages and cultures. This is a balancing act of language policymaking that considers the local interests pertaining to the promotion of Indonesian and the maintenance of heritage and indigenous languages as well as the exogenous factors which mean that English plays an important role in the global world.

Sani et al. (Reference Sani, Sakti, Nuebig, Toda, Mulyanto and Nakamura2017) is an excellent endeavour, exemplifying how English stands in the domain of language preservation. Motivated by the fact that Indonesia's multilingualism is currently in ‘a state of catastrophe’, Sani et al. (Reference Sani, Sakti, Nuebig, Toda, Mulyanto and Nakamura2017) are currently developing a speech-to-speech translation system, which is a collection and analysis of Indonesian indigenous speech corpora to enable communication between speakers of two different languages. In Sani et al. (Reference Sani, Sakti, Nuebig, Toda, Mulyanto and Nakamura2017), the focus of the research was on the two largest ethnic groups: Javanese and Sundanese. They were aiming for the establishment of an infrastructure of speech-to-speech translation from indigenous languages (e.g. Javanese, Batak, Makassarese) to English/Indonesian (see Figure 1). Further research is needed.

Figure 1.

Speech translation mechanism (after Sani et al., Reference Sani, Sakti, Nuebig, Toda, Mulyanto and Nakamura2017) .

2.2 Utilization of linguistic repertoire

Consideration of the multilingual context of Indonesia is also evident in studies that utilize teachers’ and students’ linguistic repertoire. This is evidenced by the presence of studies such as Cahyani, de Courcy, and Barnett (Reference Cahyani, de Courcy and Barnett2018), Hidayati (Reference Hidayati2012), Ningsih (Reference Ningsih2016), Sugiharto (Reference Sugiharto2015c), Zein (Reference Zein, Zein and Stroupe2018b) and Zentz (Reference Zentz2015).

A study by Hidayati (Reference Hidayati2012) examined the use of Indonesian in teaching English at a polytechnic in Bandung, West Java. Hidayati showed that teachers still overused Indonesian, which might not promote the L2. However, when judicious use of Indonesian was at play, it promoted classroom interaction in English. The teachers acknowledged the benefits drawn from using Indonesian, including for grammar and vocabulary explanation, comprehension checks, advice on language learning strategies, provision of complex classroom instruction and creation of classroom humour. Another study by Ningsih (Reference Ningsih2016) investigated the implementation of Reading to learn that uses students’ first language (L1) over a sequence of lessons to allow for L2 (English) to slowly phase in when students demonstrate increasing confidence and familiarity with the L2. The focus was on control of genre development, register with respect to subject/field, jargon, grammar identification of clauses and nominal group structure and presentation (e.g. spelling, images). The findings of the study suggest that the students showed progress in their use of jargon, indicating their improved knowledge of their field, while their use of grammar demonstrated decreasing L1 interference. Grammatical complexity was also evident in the use of identifying clauses and nominalization, while control of spelling and punctuation also increased considerably. Zentz (Reference Zentz2015) conducted an ethnographic study involving an undergraduate student at a private Christian university in Central Java. Data from the study shows that when learning English, the student not only learned a new language but also new modes of thinking not found in his immediate environment. Moreover, the student learned about

This, according to Zentz, was a linguistic manoeuvre appearing through highly dynamic, nuanced and complex communicative repertoire.

The complex interplay of English, Indonesian and indigenous languages within one's linguistic repertoire is the subject of studies by Cahyani et al. (Reference Cahyani, de Courcy and Barnett2018), Sugiharto (Reference Sugiharto2015c) and Zein (Reference Zein, Zein and Stroupe2018b). These studies show evidence of how Indonesian teachers and scholars employ translanguaging as an act of combining two languages as a unity or one linguistic repertoire, allowing them to select features strategically for effective communication.

Cahyani et al. (Reference Cahyani, de Courcy and Barnett2018) employed classroom observations with video and audio recording, interviews with stimulated recall and a focus group discussion to collect data from three teachers in tertiary bilingual classrooms over one semester. The findings described teachers’ active translanguaging such as when they switched to Javanese when making jokes, switched to English when praising or reproaching students and shifted into Indonesian when reinforcing students’ understanding. Their use of Indonesian words such as ‘rekan-rekan’ was a deliberate communication strategy to show a collectivist spirit, while one of the lecturers’ use of Javanese words ‘ditarik tanganku’ was meant ‘to position himself alongside the students as insiders’ (p. 474). Both demonstrate appropriate sociocultural values. Through translanguaging, teachers could ‘… invite a fully multilingual construction of meaning, drawing on students’ diverse cultural and linguistic resources for the sake of learning and engagement’ (p. 475). Sugiharto (Reference Sugiharto2015c) analysed the writing practices of two prominent Indonesian scholars: Soenjono Dardjowidjojo and Chaedar Alwasilah through a translingual perspective. Sugiharto's study found that translanguaging was an effective means that allowed the two scholars to incorporate their agency, ideological positioning and rhetorical traditions into their linguistic practices. Alwasilah, for example, framed his texts within the mainstream academic discourse; but in doing so, he was able to infuse his Sundanese and Muslim identities. Sugiharto (Reference Sugiharto2015c) then argued for the necessity of a paradigm shift in teaching writing, accentuating the need to allow learners to uncover their diverse linguistic repertoire while shaping language to appropriate their interest, culture and identity. Zein (Reference Zein, Zein and Stroupe2018b) employed multivocal ethnography to investigate the translanguaging practice of English for young learners (EYL) teachers. His study demonstrated that a teacher's multimodal approach to metadiscursive translanguaging could allow for the integration of all discursive resources (e.g. pictures, drawing on the board, videos, labels) while encouraging learners’ bilingual practices to make meaning through English, Indonesian and Javanese. When the teacher could design assignments that encouraged learners to consult texts and media across languages and modalities, scaffolding was found. Scaffolding through translanguaging occurred because the teacher could leverage learner's prior knowledge and familiar languaging practices by accessing their linguistic repertoire in a gradual, systematic manner.

2.3 English and character building

Pertinent to discussion on English within Indonesia's linguistic ecology is the analysis of English vis-à-vis character building, which comes as a response to the recent major educational reform in Indonesia. The policy, initiated by the administration of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (2004–2014) is currently expanded under the incumbent President Joko Widodo's (2014–present) Nawa Cita, or nine-point development programme. As a consequence, English teachers are required to carry out character education reform in their classrooms through the incorporation of national, social, cultural and religious values. Qoyyimah (Reference Qoyyimah2016) examined teachers’ implementation of the 2013 Curriculum that stipulates character building. Data from the study show the emergence of secular morality as a result of teachers’ attempts to align character building and teaching materials. Religious morality, on the other hand, emerged as a result of teachers’ own priorities and practice. Qoyyimah suggested that ‘teachers’ implementation of moral education in their classes was dominated by their school communities’ and the teachers’ own preferred value of religiosity’ (p. 109).

Given the importance of religious values in character building, it is of no surprise that studies touching upon the relationship between English language and religions are in the ascendancy. One excellent example is Mambu (Reference Mambu2016). In research involving Christian and non-Christian students at a teacher education programme, Mambu attempted to resist dichotomization of religious faiths. Collecting data from six students through interviews and an audio-recorded class session, Mambu (Reference Mambu2016) showed participants’ willingness to engage in interfaith dialogues that promote love and humility. This is feasible, for example, through intellectual discussions on religious texts where open-mindedness and respect for others are key. Such a practice, according to Mambu, would help challenge the predominant reluctance to incorporate religion into English language education, an important point given the rising religious intolerance in Indonesia.

Murtisari and Mali (Reference Murtisari and Mali2017) also found religion to be one of the determining factors that create the tensions between English and the national language and culture. While participants coming from Christian backgrounds tended to show more inclusive perceptions towards English, those with Islamic beliefs demonstrated negative attitudes towards western loan words coming from English. This latest finding contradicts Dewi (Reference Dewi2012), whose research suggested that the majority of the participants who were Muslims had positive attitudes towards English. They held no consensus on associating English with any particular religion, while agreeing that their religion supports language learning. Another assertion that Islam is non-oppositional to English is found in Setiyadi and Sukirlan (Reference Setiyadi and Sukirlan2016). Focusing on the role of English in madrasas, or Islamic schools, Setiyadi and Sukirlan analysed the language attitude of 329 students towards English. Findings from their study indicate the positive perceptions of the students towards English. Students were found to have developed positive sensitivity towards the Western culture associated with English while learning the language without necessarily fearing that the attempt would threaten their religious beliefs and cultural identities.

2.4 Native-speakerism and English varieties

Recent studies have also investigated the ecology of the linguistic landscape in Indonesia through examination of English in relation to issues such as native-speakerism and its varieties. The English as a native language (ENL) ideology has long become the ideological norm in the country where teachers are supposed to teach according to the ‘standard’ or ‘native’ English varieties such as American English (AE) and British English (BE) (Dardjowidjojo, Reference Dardjowidjojo2000). However, this appears to be changing on the evidence of recent research.

Zein's (Reference Zein and Zein2018a) synthesis of studies on English language education in Indonesia shows there is currently a shift in language attitude. It seems that students, teachers and teacher educators have changed their perceptions regarding English and the theoretical perspectives underlying its teaching and learning. The ENL ideology encapsulated in the EFL perspective that has been long and widely implemented in Indonesia is under question. In his study, Zein argued that the sociolinguistic situation of English language in Indonesia appears to be transitioning from EFL to English as a lingua franca (ELF). Zein's view receives support from scholars such as Kirkpatrick (Reference Kirkpatrick and Zein2018), who states that ‘the labels EFL and ESL are no longer appropriate, as English is the lingua franca of the [ASEAN] group’ and that the officialization of English as the working language of the ASEAN ‘provides a timely moment to radically alter the way English has traditionally been taught in Indonesia, and to move from an ENL approach to the lingua franca approach.’ (p. 198).

Scholars working within the pluricentric English perspective generally challenge the native-speakerism which highlights the belief that the only norm worth teaching is the ‘native’ English and that the ‘native speakers’ of English are the only language models. For example, Kramadibrata (Reference Kramadibrata2016) conducted a quasi-experimental study to investigate the perceptions of native-speakerism, using video analysis, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Although they held an implicit preference for ‘native’ English-speaking teachers, the participants of the study also believed in a more fluid understanding of ‘nativeness’. They argued that English now belongs to the majority ‘non-native speakers’ or everyone that uses it, and no longer the minority so-called ‘native speakers’. More importantly, they believed that ‘native-speaking’ status in language teaching was no longer important, as one of them stated, ‘It's not about native or non-native. It's just about the way he/she [the teacher] teaches.’ (p. 293).

The issue of English varieties has generated a lot of debate. In a study involving 32 lecturers, teachers and students in Jogjakarta, Dewi (Reference Dewi2014) showed mixed perceptions among participants regarding new Englishes (e.g. Indian English, Singaporean English) in comparison to BE and AE. The participants in general perceived New Englishes to be inferior to AE and BE. However, the participants did not consider New Englishes to be problematic – they are ‘just different’. One of them stated, ‘We should embrace and learn other dialects of English since English is now becoming an international language’ (p. 10). Another study by Dewi (Reference Dewi2017a) investigated the perception of English language educators pursuing postgraduate studies in Australia regarding the varieties to teach upon returning to Indonesia. Data obtained from individual interviews of 14 participants suggests that most participants would generally teach either AE or BE due to external factors such as textbook availability and curricular imposition. However, other participants would broaden their scope of teaching beyond the ENL ideology imposition, with one of them stating, ‘…if I'm given the authority to design syllabus, I wouldn't limit myself with those Inner Circle choices. At least I hope to make some positive changes to my students in their belief about the English language’ (p. 142).

Manara (Reference Manara2016) conducted in-depth interviews with 13 English language educators to investigate their attitudes towards English varieties. Her study suggested polarizing views of English. On the one hand, participants believed in the importance of preserving the ‘standard’ or ‘native’ English varieties as normative linguistic knowledge was considered important for language teaching. They thought that introducing more than one variety to learners was imprudent as it would only create confusion. On the other hand, participants argued for a more flexible mode of communication that accepts English varieties, especially when it comes to (verbal) intercultural communication. Given the vast and diverse global communication, participants suggested that privileging the ‘standard’ or ‘native’ English varieties was ‘restrictive’ and ‘unrealistic’. This led Manara (Reference Manara2016) to argue that ‘Englishes are felt to be more acceptable in communicative settings (other than formal educational setting of a classroom)’ where ‘variations are welcomed, tolerated, and accommodated’ (p. 14). A study based on a microteaching course was conducted by Zacharias (Reference Zacharias2016). Data from interviews involving 12 prospective teachers in the study suggests that the participants held the belief that their identities were projected through having a native-like pronunciation. Nevertheless, the participants agreed that learning ELF had no direct relationship with their integration with the ‘native’ English-speaking community. The majority of the participants also appropriated their ELF pedagogy understanding with maintenance of cultural identity and promotion of local cultures. They further reported an increased sense of professional confidence after being exposed to ELF pedagogy.

Overall, the studies reviewed in the current section demonstrate the linguistic contestation resulting from the introduction of English. First, they present one major challenge for teachers in utilizing English for the benefit of learners’ linguistic repertoire. This is important in consideration of the emergence of what Coleman (Reference Coleman2017b) calls Indonesian English as a newly recognized linguistic variety, although this view warrants further research in light of Hamied's (Reference Hamied, Kirkpatrick and Sussex2012) suggestion that varieties of English spoken by Indonesians would be as varied as varieties of Indonesian given the nation's rich linguistic diversity. Investigation as to how English varieties occur in the process of Indonesians acquiring English on top of Indonesian and indigenous languages is very much needed. Further, it is worth noting that these studies come mainly from familiar contexts in Java, including DKI Jakarta, Central Java and West Java. They generally examined English in relation to major indigenous languages: Javanese and Sundanese. Similar research undertaken in other multilingual contexts of Indonesia and involving other indigenous languages have yet to be found. Another challenge captured by studies in this section is how English fits within the grand scheme of policy on character building, an issue that seems to perplex many. The third challenge relates to the shifting paradigm from the ENL ideology to the pluricentric ideology which questions the present status and role of English within Indonesia's linguistic ecology. Clearly the studies capturing the last two challenges demonstrate the responses to the endogenous factor of changing educational policy as well as the exogenous factor of the shift towards pluricentric English.

3.1 Pedagogy

Studies on the pedagogical domain of primary education revolve around the issue of developing best practice for English teaching, that is, how teachers can best shape their pedagogy to cater to the needs of young learners.

A few studies focus on teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and teaching techniques. These include Hawanti (Reference Hawanti2014), who conducted interviews and observations of teachers in Banjarnegara, Central Java to investigate their pedagogical knowledge and its effects on their pedagogy. Findings from the study demonstrate that ‘in the absence of official curriculum teachers are required to draw on their existing knowledge and beliefs but the existing knowledge and beliefs of teachers in Indonesia are often not well developed.’ (p. 162). As a result, the teachers used the textbooks for curricular guidance. They argued that this was justified because the textbooks had relevant themes, teaching materials and exercises. In terms of teaching practice, Ratminingsih (Reference Ratminingsih2014) was interested in developing song-based instruction as a pedagogical model in primary schools in Bali. Focusing on learners’ abilities to respond to instructions through songs, the model allowed for active participation of the learners. Although the model was found to be engaging and effective in improving learners’ learning achievement, Ratminingsih argued that the teachers still needed professional development to carry it out appropriately. For Zein (Reference Zein2017b), teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge is related to a focus on young learners. His study focuses on the appropriate pedagogy for teaching EYL. The study collected data from 26 teachers through semi-structured interviews. The findings of the study suggest the importance of young learner pedagogy, arguing that any attempt to create a practically oriented teacher education must be done by re-shifting the focus on young learners. This becomes a point of departure for Zein to argue that TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) teacher education needs to make stronger emphasis on child individual differences in order to equip teachers with appropriate working knowledge in SLA that is pertinent to EYL teaching expertise.

Other studies are more methodological in their approach (e.g. Diem, Reference Diem2011; Suryati, Furaidah, & Saukah, Reference Suryati, Furaidah and Saukah2017). Suryati et al. examined dialogic reading strategy in which students were given opportunities to complete endings of sentences, to respond to teachers’ open-ended and wh- questions and to recall what they had just read. The researchers collected data from control and experimental groups involving 40 fourth-grade students. Their study shows that the experimental group that was given eight meetings of dialogic reading instruction outperformed the control group that only received traditional reading instruction. Arguing for the efficacy of the dialogic reading strategy, the researchers recommend it to teachers to help enhance their pedagogy. Diem (Reference Diem2011) was motivated by the low literacy level of primary school children in Indonesia. She conducted a study with a model called the 3-Ls: Libraries, Literature and Literacy, allowing for optimal utilization of diverse learning resources by teachers in cooperation with librarians. Involving 200 Grade 5 students, the research employed regression analysis. The findings suggest that the model made a significant contribution to both students’ reading habits (R² 0.793) and literacy skills (R² 0.943), although these were still deemed insufficient gains. Diem's study implies that in order for the model to be effective it needs optimal library facilities, often equipped with computers and the internet.

Other studies are interested in examining teachers’ ability to develop discourse in the classroom. Aisah and Hidayat (Reference Aisah and Hidayat2012) conducted research in a newly established international school to investigate teacher classroom discourse. Using video-recorded data of a Grade 1 teacher, Aisah and Hidayat examined the spontaneous production of teacher talk. The findings of their study suggest that the teacher employed referential questions and extended wait time. While the teacher was vigilant in correcting students’ pronunciation, he was more lenient when it came to grammatical error. The teacher also employed a series of teacher-initiated exchanges and student-initiated exchanges. All these strategies, according to the researchers, contributed to the creation of a challenging but supportive learning environment. Setiawati (Reference Setiawati2012) also worked on classroom discourse. Her research investigated teacher talk through direct observations of three native English native-speaking teachers and interviews with 18 primary school students. The study shows that although ‘native’ English speakers were good models for the language, ‘most students found the class more motivating, interesting, and challenging when the teachers minimized their teacher talk and made use not only more constructive teacher talk but also interesting activities’ (p. 33). Setiawati calls for teachers to develop more skills to direct activities, create transitions, give feedback and praise and check students’ understanding.

Some researchers are interested in unravelling the sociolinguistic nature of textbooks in supporting pedagogy (e.g. Sari, Reference Sari2011; Hermawan & Noerkhasanah, Reference Hermawan and Noerkhasanah2012; Damayanti, Reference Damayanti2014;). For example, Sari (Reference Sari2011) conducted critical discourse analysis to investigate the underlying ideology behind gender representation in a primary school textbook, Learn English with Tito. Sari's text analysis focused on participants, processes and circumstances of clauses appearing in the textbook. Findings reveal the perpetual stereotyping of male characters, tending to give more dominant roles to them and less dominant roles to female characters. This male domination underlying ideology was found to be prominent, which the editor admitted to be the case in a follow-up interview that Sari conducted. Taking a similar departing point, Damayanti (Reference Damayanti2014) employed a textual analysis on four English textbooks: Go with English, Learning by Doing, Grow with English and Fokus. The findings of her study demonstrate that ‘the illustrations accompanying linguistic texts fortified the representations of gender asymmetry’ (p. 100) with female characters being depicted as more dependent and passive than males. Damayanti argued for more conscientious effort to ensure gender equality in the multimodal meaning construction represented in textbooks. Furthermore, Hermawan and Noerkhasanah (Reference Hermawan and Noerkhasanah2012) investigated the representation of cultures in textbooks and how they were presented. Using data from Grow with English, the researchers categorized texts according to Adaskou, Britten, and Fahsi's (Reference Adaskou, Britten and Fahsi1990) cultural framework. The results of the study suggest the salience of the target culture (exclusively American) and the marginalization of the local culture. Representations of local cultures include character names, places and locations and rituals. Discussion of cultures was also found to be at the ‘surface level’ (p. 60). The researchers argue for the inclusion of other cultures that represent a more international view of English and the integration of cultural dimensions other than from the sociological perspective.

A different stance in viewing pedagogy of teaching English in primary schools appears in Adityarini (Reference Adityarini2014) and Setiasih (Reference Setiasih2014). The research by Adityarini aimed to investigate the endonormative models of incorporating local varieties of English among 15 primary school English teachers. The researcher employed a sequential exploratory mixed method with interviews and questionnaires. The findings of the study show the support of the teachers for the adoption of a pluricentric model of English language teaching, as it was deemed to be beneficial for the adoption of cultural values and identity. Complex issues, however, were identified. These include teachers' lack of professional qualifications and a conflicting political agenda associated with Curriculum 2013, which planned to abolish English in primary education. Adityarini suggested the inclusion of courses that promote pluricentric models in programmes offering primary English education. Setiasih, on the other hand, was interested in investigating the role of teachers’ pedagogy in the classroom and the home environment outside the classroom in the promotion of learners’ literacy. In a case study in a primary school in Bandung that offers EMI for maths and Science, Setiasih employed analysis of student assessments, classroom observations, interviews and documentary materials. The findings of the study demonstrate the importance of developing ‘educational, meaningful…out of school English literacy activities…beyond school-based tasks’ (p. 95). According to Setiasih, this requires strong parental involvement through a family learning programme, an initiative that suits the sociocultural context of education in Indonesia.

3.2 Teacher education

With the extremely high demand for English in primary schools occurring a few years ago, many primary schools were in short supply of qualified English teachers. Often, school principals appointed teachers with no English background to teach English. Studies have attempted to respond to this situation by examining two areas of research. One is the lack of competencies of teachers who were generally unprepared to teach English in primary schools (e.g. Hawanti, Reference Hawanti2012; Sikki, Rahman, Hamra, & Noni, Reference Sikki, Rahman, Hamra and Noni2013; Zein, Reference Zein2017d) and the other is the inadequacy of teacher education programmes (Dewi, Reference Dewi2016; Zein, Reference Zein2016a, Reference Zein2016b).

Some studies focus on the lack of competencies of teachers in a number of domains. Hawanti's (Reference Hawanti2012) qualitative study shows how teachers were not adequately prepared to teach English in primary schools. The study suggests teachers’ agreement on the necessity for the government to develop a curriculum for primary school English teaching. Teachers, however, varied in their knowledge and beliefs about learners. Teachers with an English education background tended to be more pedagogically versatile, while those without this background tended to demand discipline and obedience from learners. These results, Hawanti argues, require significant adjustments on the part of teacher educators to develop training programmes that can match teachers’ knowledge and beliefs. Assessing teachers’ competencies was the motivation of a study conducted by Sikki et al. (Reference Sikki, Rahman, Hamra and Noni2013). The researchers collected data from 1,415 teachers in South Sulawesi in the districts of Makassar, Bantaeng, Bulukumba, Wajo, Bone, Sidrap, Soppeng, Pangkep, Parepare and Enrekang. The findings of their study show that a great majority of the teachers were not proficient English users – a point also raised in Renandya, Hamied, and Nurkamto (Reference Renandya, Hamied and Nurkamto2018) to reflect the general condition of the English teaching workforce in Indonesia. Primary school teachers were noted to have low confidence in their English proficiency and found it difficult to use the language for instruction. According to Sikki et al., the teachers also lacked competencies in methodology, including lesson and syllabus planning, developing tasks for teaching speaking and listening, and developing and administering authentic assessment for young learners. The researchers call for teacher education to attend to these aspects in order to better prepare the teachers. In an attempt to investigate the professional development (PD) needs of primary English teachers, Zein (Reference Zein2017d) collected data from teachers and teacher educators. His study shows that teachers’ needs could be categorized into three broad areas: language, pedagogy and knowledge. In terms of language, classroom discourse and pronunciation were major issues articulated by participants of the study. In terms of pedagogy, teachers needed further training to integrate language skills, provide satisfactory feedback, manage the classroom appropriately, and select and adapt teaching materials. Teachers also needed further knowledge concerning young learners and how to develop learning activities that match their needs.

Foregrounding her research on the limited attention given by the government for teacher professional development (TPD) for primary schools, Dewi (Reference Dewi2016) conducted a study on blended TPD. Her research involved teachers from five primary schools in Bandung, West Java, and was aimed to investigate the efficacy of a blended programme intended to assist teachers in incorporating Android mobile applications into classroom pedagogy. The findings of the study point to the flexibility, accessibility and usefulness of the programme. Telegram was cited as a more useful application than Edmodo in representing immediate communication. The success of the programme led Dewi to call for a more facilitative role at the macro-level to help support teacher development. The call for a facilitative role also appears in Zein (Reference Zein2016a). While Complexity Theory has been used to examine the complex, non-linear systems of SLA (see Larsen-Freeman, Reference Larsen-Freeman1997), Zein employed it to further examine the role of government-based training agencies in the PD of primary English teachers. The results of his study show the theorization of a TPD model involving complex and dynamic interactions between stakeholders. The study points to the need to differentiate the facilitative role that is best played by educational administrators, teachers’ groups and school principals and the expertise role by teacher educators in order to draw a fine line for effective TPD design and implementation.

Other studies suggest different practices of teacher education. Wati (Reference Wati2011) conducted a study to investigate the efficacy of an English training programme in Rokan Hulu, Riau. Involving 55 primary teachers, the study collected data through questionnaires. The findings of the study point to the efficacy of the programme to improve teachers’ confidence and motivation, but further provision on teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge was still needed. Wati calls for more teacher education programmes to cater for this, placing it early during the programme and giving pedagogy much more time. Zein (Reference Zein2016b) collected data from 23 teachers, 14 teacher educators and 3 school principals to identify factors affecting the efficacy of PD for primary English teachers. The findings of the study show that the inadequacy of in-service PD was attributed to factors such as the shortage of quality teacher educators. Moreover, bureaucratic issues were also influential in undermining the design and implementation of PD programmes, as intrusion from educational administrators often resulted in poor training management and ambiguous selection of teachers who could attend the programmes. In an earlier study, Zein (Reference Zein2015) involved teachers and teacher educators to investigate their perceptions regarding policy measures for improving pre-service teacher education. The findings of the study suggest the need for redesigning pre-service education curricula and for providing specific preparation for primary English teachers. The study calls for pre-service teacher education to develop integrated language components that equip teachers with strong language proficiency as well as content-based instruction that integrates language and content for PD.

3.3 Policy

The issue of English being an optional subject in primary schools has been ongoing for many years (see Lestari, Reference Lestari2003; Zein, Reference Zein2017a). Researchers are divided as to whether English should be made compulsory. Some researchers think it is best to maintain the optional status of English in primary schools. For Karea (Reference Karea2016), this is desirable because English is not included in the national examination as long as it is an optional subject. This allows focus to be directed to ‘teaching children oral communicative competence rather than merely language knowledge’ while allowing teachers ‘to be creative and innovative to improve their potential and efficacy’ (p. 260).

Others (e.g. Hawanti, Reference Hawanti2014; Zein, Reference Zein2017c), on the other hand, hold a different opinion. For Hawanti (Reference Hawanti2014), the optional status for primary English education actually ‘has created problems for its own implementation’ (p. 168). Teachers have not been adequately prepared because the policy is not strong enough to push for an agenda on teacher education to help teachers improve their pedagogical content knowledge. The policy also does not provide teachers with curricular guidance. Because English is not compulsory, there is no curriculum for teachers.

Working on the same line of reasoning, Zein (Reference Zein2017c) used Kaplan and Baldauf's (Reference Kaplan, Baldauf and Hinkel2005) framework of language-in-education policy goals to make policy recommendations particularly on access policy, personnel policy and curriculum policy. In terms of access policy, Zein called for the officialization of English in primary schools and defended a more critical approach in which English is suited to the local context. His suggestion to lower the objectives of primary school instruction and to cater for the teaching of English along with Indonesian and indigenous languages in primary education is in line with his other proposal for a curriculum that promotes linguistic diversity in the classroom (Zein, Reference Zein2017a). Zein (Reference Zein2017c) called for a more effective mechanism of recruitment and rewards for primary school teachers. Agreeing with Hawanti (Reference Hawanti2014, p. 169), who states that ‘the teacher education policy… does not have the capacity at present to resolve the problems’, Zein also called for a specialized preparatory course on primary English education as part of the policy.

Zein's (Reference Zein2017a) article is a review of the current practices and challenges on policy on elementary English education. Highlighting notable challenges such as the mismatch between teachers’ qualifications and the professional skills they ought to perform and pedagogical concerns relating to employing suitable methodology, the article also points to future prospects for elementary English education. It articulates the importance of adopting a holistic view of multilingualism to take into account linguistic diversity in Indonesia as well as the apparent need for English instruction. It suggests the need for a framework of education that could allow for the establishment of multilingual education consisting of Indonesian, English and indigenous languages. Although this suggestion was later accepted as a policy proposal to accommodate multilingual education by the then Minister of Education and Culture, Dr Anies Baswedan, a political decision by President Joko Widodo resulted in the removal of Dr Baswedan from office. In 2017, the government decided to abolish the teaching of English in primary schools through the Revised Curriculum 2013.

Overall, the surge of research interest in primary English education reflects the growth of the increasing number of primary schools offering English education in the past 15 years. Researchers have attempted to uncover the pedagogical complexity surrounding primary English education, with a strong emphasis on pedagogy and teacher education. This is understandable since primary English education is relatively new. Research on pedagogy and teacher education reflects the aspiration of researchers to develop pedagogically appropriate teaching approaches to help primary school teachers, a great majority of whom have not been prepared to teach English. This is a common issue that is also found in other contexts such as East Asia (see Butler, Reference Butler2015). On the other hand, research on policy shows the continuing political contestation of primary English schooling, which, as opposed to teaching English in secondary and tertiary education, remains under-supported. The divided opinions among researchers regarding the role of English in primary education reflect this heated debate.

4.1 Curriculum changes

Before 2013, the English Curriculum adopted in senior high school (SHS) was the 2006 KTSP or Competency-Based Curriculum. Then, through National Minister's Regulation No. 69, it was replaced by the 2013 Character-Based Curriculum or the 2013 Curriculum. Since its first introduction, the latter curriculum had sparked harsh debates among education practitioners and researchers. Shadowed by those debates, some scholars studied the reasons why the 2013 Curriculum was introduced, whether the teachers and students were ready to implement it and the problems encountered in the field, etc. Based on the papers he reviewed, Putra (Reference Putra2014) argued that there were two factors leading to the introduction of the 2013 Curriculum: (1) the NE which tested only listening and reading; and (2) teachers’ poor communicative competence. These factors had driven the teachers to focus their teaching on skills that did not require them to produce the spoken language. They dedicated their time to teaching reading intensively, rather than extensively, together with grammar and vocabulary, paying less attention to speaking, listening and writing. As the 2013 Curriculum adopted a GBA in text selection for reading, Putra (Reference Putra2014) foresaw that the implementation of the 2013 Curriculum would be problematic because the decrease of teaching hours was not followed by a sufficient reduction in the text types introduced, namely five text types for junior secondary schools and ten text types for senior high schools. He argued that the 2013 Curriculum should be fine-tuned in accordance with real classroom situations followed by teachers’ quality improvement.

A prediction that the 2013 Curriculum would be problematic at the implementation level is supported by Sundayana (Reference Sundayana2015). The researcher studied the teachers’ readiness and ability to implement the 2013 Curriculum. Using a questionnaire, he found that the teachers interviewed were ready and competent to implement the 2013 Curriculum. However, the relationship between the two variables was rather weak, indicating that their readiness might not come from the teaching competence they had, but from external factors such as regulations or pressure from the working environment. Gani and Mahjaty (Reference Gani and Mahjaty2017) explored the problems of the 2013 Curriculum implementation from the point of view of the acquisition of content, teaching and learning processes, and evaluation standards. Using a questionnaire administered to teachers from three schools in Banda Aceh, they showed that the respondents’ knowledge about implementing the 2013 Curriculum was low: 40% for content knowledge, 41% for process knowledge and 36% for evaluation knowledge. Gani and Mahjaty argued that this low level of knowledge may result in pedagogical problems. A similar conclusion was reached by Jasmi (Reference Jasmi2014), who observed that a teacher in a SHS did not create a lesson plan. Instead, she modified some from the internet as was commonly done by teachers in the previous Competency-Based Curriculum. Jasmi found the teacher also had difficulty when constructing the assessment section of the lesson plan because there were too many aspects to evaluate and too many documents to complete. In a similar vein, Ashar and Irmawati (Reference Ashar and Irmawati2016) observed that some steps were missing from an English lesson of a teacher at a vocational secondary school, including preliminary activities, integrated learning implementation, selection of learning resources and media, and the concluding stage. The deficiencies were caused by the shortage of time allocation, complicated assessment procedures, and the lack of teachers’ understanding of the 2013 Curriculum. Problems with assessment were also seen by Rukmini and Saputri (Reference Rukmini and Saputri2017), who studied the implementation of authentic assessment to evaluate productive skills. The researchers found that limited time allotment, class size and the complex nature of authentic assessment had driven the teachers to shift from teaching to assessing (p. 268). The researchers thought this may be due to the fact that evaluation portfolios would be checked by school supervisors. Moreover, teachers would also use the portfolios for marking purposes.

Another criticism of the 2013 Curriculum came from Widodo (Reference Widodo and Kirkpatrick2016), who argued that it did not demonstrate key curriculum components such as materials, method and techniques, and assessment from relevant theories of language, language learning and language teaching. He contended that it did not specifically highlight any key principles of reframing English language curricula in the Indonesian secondary education sector from a critical perspective. He proceeded to offer six principles. First, teachers should play a role not only as curriculum transmitters but also as curriculum makers and developers. Second, rather than being enacted in a top-down manner, curriculum development should be initiated by teachers. Third, teachers should base their teaching on their own local or situated context. Fourth, assessment and teaching should be dynamic, a process of developing what students have learned. Fifth, teacher education should be revitalized to produce teachers who play a developmental role. Sixth, TPD in which teachers play an active role should be sustained.

Other researchers investigated the impact of policy changes on the curriculum in terms of the emergence of EMI. In implementing Law No. 32/2004 on the National Education System, the Indonesian government introduced international standard schools (ISS) in 2005, which endorsed EMI for science subjects together with Bahasa Indonesia for social sciences. This EMI policy raised controversies among education observers, educators, researchers, non-government organizations and policymakers (see Sukyadi, Reference Sukyadi, Spolsky and Sung2015).

Coleman (Reference Coleman and Coleman2011) observed that EMI practice in secondary schools varied from school to school. Some schools exclusively teach subjects in English. On the other hand, some schools only use English to open and close lessons, delivering lessons mainly in Indonesian (p. 10). Coleman's observation was in line with Haryanto's study (Reference Haryanto2012); he found that EMI was not significantly related to students’ academic performance. The teachers themselves were aware that they were not proficient in English and had difficulty conveying the subject content in English. These findings are in line with Fitriati (Reference Fitriati2015), who found that teachers’ positive language ideology did not always go hand in hand with their language practice in the classroom. Teachers’ limited English language competence and lack of knowledge of language acquisition and language pedagogy threatened the success of EMI implementation.

In his further examination of the complexity of EMI policy in Indonesia, Coleman (Reference Coleman, Lawson and Sayers2016b) cited how students’ reading competence based on the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) was low, making it unrealistic to expect that they would be able to learn in classrooms where English is the medium of instruction. Coleman further observed that the EMI policy also constrained students’ ability to process information and interact with the teachers, lowered the prestige of Bahasa Indonesia and hastened the decline of local languages. In the long run, it would create a tension between English-speaking upper class and Bahasa Indonesia- and indigenous-speaking lower class (pp. 226–227). Coleman's findings are parallel with the ESACDP report (2013). The report shows that from 1339 fledgling international standard schools, no school had become an ISS or achieved all the requirements, and one of the most difficult criteria to meet was EMI.

The EMI policy ended in 2013 when the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Indonesia revoked Chapter 50, Paragraph 3 of the Act of the 2003 National Education System, which legalized the policy. Since then, the use of EMI has been limited to some private schools (Walker, Liyanage, Madya, & Hidayati, Reference Walker, Liyanage, Madya, Hidayati, Liyanage and Walker2019) which are independent of government funding either at primary or secondary levels. However, as noted by Walker et al., EMI policy is booming through internationalization programmes at tertiary level. Student exchange programmes initiated and funded by the government of ASEAN countries, such as South East Asia Teachers (SEA Teachers) and South East Asia Technical and Vocational Education (SEA TVET) have encouraged state teacher education universities to create a teaching practicum where English is used as a medium of instruction. Other methods of teaching, such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) offered by overseas universities, have also increased the demand for EMI in tertiary education.

4.2 Materials development

Some Indonesian researchers are also interested in studying textbooks, tools that many teachers heavily depend on to succeed in their teaching. Researchers studied textbooks from an internal structure viewpoint, such as content difficulty and thematic progression, while others explored the inclusion of culture and ideologies. With regard to the internal structure of textbooks, Putra and Lukmana (Reference Putra and Lukmana2017) examined progression and complexity in reading texts. They found that, regardless of the inconsistent progression of text complexity within each textbook, there was a consistent pattern of text complexity progression across grade levels; the higher the grade, the more complex the texts are. However, complexity progression of NE texts between JHS and SHS is not significantly wide. First, as reported by Aziez (Reference Aziez2015), it was found that both JHS and SHS NE texts belong to the same K4 (4,000-words) level (the number required to 95% comprehend the texts). Second, the difference of the 4,000-word coverage between JHS and SHS is also small. Aziez (p. 16) further indicated that the running word by the 4,000 words in NE texts of JHS was 95.80%, while it was 95.96% for SHS. For vocabulary beyond 2,000 basic words, the coverage in JHS NE texts is 7.83%, as opposed to 7.61% in SHS NE texts. This means that JHS students need to know 109 new word families in the texts, while SHS students need to know 93 new word families.

A number of studies were carried out to examine the compatibility of textbooks with the interests of the users. For example, Goridussukur, Madya, and Bismoko (Reference Goridussukur, Madya and Bismoko2018) investigated whether English textbooks used in secondary high schools fulfilled the needs of their multicultural, multilingual and multi-ethnic students. They showed that most of the contents of the three textbooks they examined had strictly followed the national standard. Consequently, the contents in general did not take into account the differences of Indonesian students in terms of ethnicity, geographical areas, socio-economic background, gender, interest, motivation, ability and other related factors. They reported that the difficulty level of the books was suitable only for students in big cities who had more access to learning resources, implying that they were not suitable for students with limited competence and resources and living in the many remote areas in Indonesia. While Goridussukur et al. (Reference Goridussukur, Madya and Bismoko2018) looked at the relevance of textbooks from the point of view of cultural, linguistic and ethnic varieties, Margana and Widyantoro (Reference Margana and Widyantoro2017) observed them with regard to the students’ cognitive development. They observed that government-distributed textbooks put emphasis on recall and text comprehension. Therefore, teachers were enthusiastic when they were introduced to new ways to develop reading materials that would enhance learners’ high order thinking skills.

From a visual mode perspective, Ena (Reference Ena2013) examined whether electronic textbooks published by the government in 2008 were visually representative in terms of ethnicity, religion, gender and socio-economic status (SES). She found that minority Melanesian ethnic groups were under-represented. From a religion perspective, only Islam and Christianity were represented by human images, while Hinduism and Buddhism were represented by the images of objects. From a gender point of view, women were under-represented, while men were presented as having a wider range of roles as shown by their occupations and the tasks they performed. Three socio-economic status groups: low, mid and high were represented in the English e-textbooks and most of the visual images represented the mid-SES group. Also, the textbooks promoted the ideology of ELF in that the goal of English language learning was not to achieve native-like competence, but to be able to use English for intercultural communication.

4.3 Teachers and learners: Characteristics and interactions

Teachers and learners are the main actors that determine whether learning objectives are met or not. Bearing this in mind, issues concerning learners’ characteristics and learning strategies have been dealt with by Indonesian scholars and education practitioners. It is generally believed that language learning strategies play a significant role in the success of language learning. They have been found to be instrumental in the acquisition of language skills (Oxford, Reference Oxford1991, Reference Oxford2011).

With regard to reading skill acquisition, Tobing (Reference Tobing2013) reported that reading strategies had a significant relationship with reading comprehension. More reading strategy usage mean more reading comprehension. When the students were trained to use predicting, text mapping and summarizing, their literal and inferential reading comprehension significantly improved (Mistar, Zuhairi, & Yanti, Reference Mistar, Zuhairi and Yanti2016). In respect of writing skills, Mistar, Zuhairi, and Parlindungan (Reference Mistar, Zuhairi and Parlindungan2014b) reported that successful learners used strategies such as self-monitoring, planning, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, cognitive compensation, self-evaluation, authentic practice and mental processing more frequently than less successful learners did. The same was true for speaking skills, where successful learners employed more cognitive interaction strategies as well as other strategies related to cognitive interaction, self-evaluation, fluency-orientation and metacognitive planning, among others (Mistar, Zuhairi, & Umamah, Reference Mistar, Zuhairi and Umamah2014a). Mistar's studies show that training in learning strategies will improve students’ reading, writing and speaking skills.

When talking about teachers’ characteristics, Indonesian scholars mainly refer to teachers’ competences, as stipulated by the National Education Minister's Regulation No.16/2007, which include personal, social, pedagogical and professional competence. However, some teachers’ characteristics are reported on, namely insufficient reading ability, translanguaging and motivating students. Mahfud (Reference Mahfud2011) documented that teachers’ competence in comprehending genre-based texts which they were supposed to teach to their students was at the ‘fair’ level (65.38%). With this level of competence, it would be hard for them to encourage their students to acquire advanced reading ability. While poor reading ability was seen as negative, translanguaging was seen by Mujiono (Reference Mujiono2016) as positive because it allowed teachers to engage their students in the teaching and learning process. In his study, Mujiono observed that translanguaging was employed for various purposes including to involve students in learning activities, manage the classroom, alleviate fatigue and express irritation. Concerning student motivation, Astuti (Reference Astuti2013) observed that teachers of English in the SHS context influence their students’ motivation by building a good rapport with them. They accomplished this by creating appropriate teaching materials and employing interactive teaching strategies.

Indeed in Indonesia, the interaction between teachers and students is crucial for successful learning since in many cases the classrooms is the only place where students are exposed to English. Because of this, many researchers are interested in exploring this area. Student–teacher interactions are mainly studied from the perspective of interaction strategies and personal interactions. Different interaction strategies seem to be employed by teachers. Rido, Nambiar, and Ibrahim (Reference Rido, Nambiar and Ibrahim2016) reported that master teachers or exemplary teachers employed four kinds of interaction strategies: control of interaction or interaction management, elicitation or questioning, speech modification or feedback, and repairing or error treatment. The researchers viewed that these strategies were able to promote interactive learning. Interaction strategies were also realized through teacher talk and student talk. According to Puasa, Asrifan, and Chen (Reference Puasa, Asrifan and Chen2017), teacher talk appeared in the form of explanations, teacher questions, teacher feedback and the modification of teacher speech, while student talk appeared in the form of student responses and student questions. Puasa et al. (Reference Puasa, Asrifan and Chen2017) reported that students were generally influenced by teacher talk. They adjusted their language choice when responding to teacher questions. When the questions were in English, the students would answer them in English. When the teachers' questions were in their mother tongue, the students would answer them in their mother tongue. However, when the teachers translated questions into the students' first language, the students would still strive to answer them in English. Therefore, rather than using translation in asking questions, Puasa et al. (Reference Puasa, Asrifan and Chen2017) recommended simplifying the questions in English.

Student–teacher interaction could also determine students’ motivation for learning. Maulana, Opdenakker, den Brok, and Bosker (Reference Maulana, Opdenakker, den Brok and Bosker2011) investigated the relationship between students’ perceptions of teacher interpersonal behaviour and learning motivation. They found they were associated. Both influence and proximity dimensions are related to more autonomous motivation, while influence is also associated with more controlled motivation. Maulana, Helms-Lorenz, and van de Grift (Reference Maulana, Helms-Lorenz and van de Grift2015) reported that teachers’ teaching behaviour is a significant predictor of students’ controlled and autonomous motivation. The effect of teaching behaviour is stronger for pupils’ autonomous motivation than for controlled motivation.

Research shows that teacher questioning practices could determine not only the success of language learning but also student cognition. Good questions can encourage students to learn and ask better questions (see Sunggingwati & Nguyen, Reference Sunggingwati and Nguyen2013). Findings from the study demonstrated that teachers who relied on textbooks for establishing reading class activities and selecting question types, and were mainly exposed to low-level questions mostly available in the books, would face challenges in generating high-level questions and required assistance in order to do this.

4.4 NE

Before 2015, the NE was used to determine study completion and school admission. This role raised controversy among education stakeholders, especially concerning the negative effect of the NE, such as preparation drill, students’ cheating, answer key leakage and the security of test items. In this context, Sukyadi and Mardiani (Reference Sukyadi and Mardiani2011) and Furaidah, Saukah, and Widiati (Reference Furaidah, Saukah and Widiati2015) examined the washback effect of the NE on high-achieving and low-achieving schools. They found that low-achieving schools had more negative washback than high-achieving schools. Low-achieving schools realized that their students’ competence would make it impossible for them to pass the NE without extra effort, while the pressure on students was too high. Consequently, they did whatever they could to solve the problem.

In an attempt to improve the quality of the NE, in the academic year of 2014/2015, the government introduced a computer-based national examination (CBNE). This type of testing delivery aimed to reduce the negative washback of the paper-based NE. CBNE is a policy which came together with the decision that the NE was not a determinant of study completion and school admission. At the beginning of its introduction, the government implemented the CBNE in some piloted schools possessing the required information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure. Gradually, more and more schools were involved. However, considering the geographical landscape of Indonesia, the administration of the CBNE has raised complex issues. Retnawati et al. (Reference Retnawati, Hadi, Nugraha, Arlinwibowo, Sulistyaningsih, Djidu and Iryanti2015) pointed out that in implementing the CBNE the schools would have to prepare their own electronic equipment such as servers and laptops. Some areas outside Java Island experienced internet and electricity problems and this would be a problem in the administration of the CBNE. In addition to infrastructure difficulties, many test proctors did not have any experience in the CBNE and would need to be trained for that purpose. Finally, the students themselves did not know why they should use ICT for examinations. Even so, the CBNE has proved promising seen from a character-building perspective. The national average CBNE score has decreased, but the overall test validity has increased.

We have reviewed articles on ELT in secondary schools covering curriculum changes, materials development, EMI, teachers’ and students’ characteristics and interactions, and NE. Of these areas, the main problems are the politicization of educational policies and poor teacher competencies. Consequently, future research should address issues such as the present functions of the NE, the relationship between language education and character building, and the role of teacher education.

5.1 Pluricentric English

Several studies have pointed to the pluricentric approach to teaching English, such as English as an international language (EIL) and ELF.

The EIL perspective is the major tenet from which studies by Dewi (Reference Dewi2017a) and Zacharias (Reference Zacharias2011, Reference Zacharias2014a, Reference Zacharias2014b) were conducted. A classroom action research project connected with a teacher education programme was carried out by Zacharias (Reference Zacharias2011). She found that

In terms of which English(es) to teach, Dewi (Reference Dewi2017a) reported a study involving 14 English language educators with an Indonesian background on how the tertiary English teachers perceive what varieties of English to teach in their higher education institutions. They reported that their selection of English variety was due to external factors and suggested that ‘they would teach either American or British English because of textbook availability, not because of their beliefs. However, there were participants who stated that in teaching one of the varieties, they would also share information about the existence of other varieties with their students’ (p. 145). Zacharias (Reference Zacharias2016) also underlined the tendency among student-teachers towards ‘native’ English as the variety that should be taught, as ‘… many STs [student-teachers] in the present study continue to believe that credible teacher identities can only be projected through speaking native speaker's English … to establish their credibility as English language teachers’ (p. 336). Overall, the EIL approach itself is somewhat new to many student-teachers, with Zacharias (Reference Zacharias2014b) herself arguing:

Researchers such as Mambu (Reference Mambu and Zein2018) and Widiati and Hayati (Reference Widiati, Hayati and Zein2018) were also interested in the pluricentric approach to English language teacher education, seeing this rather differently through the ELF perspective. Mambu (Reference Mambu2016) collected data from undergraduate students through audio-recorded classes, journal entries and students’ comments on Schoology. His study demonstrates that scaffolded classroom discussions and exchanges through Schoology were effective to negotiate the notions of ASEAN awareness and social justice as an integral component of ELF use in the ASEAN community. Coming from a slightly different angle, the development of intercultural competence in teacher education for ELF is the focus of Widiati and Hayati (Reference Widiati, Hayati and Zein2018). The researchers analysed curricular documents from ten teacher education institutions offering courses relevant to the development of intercultural competence. Their study suggests the inseparable relationship between language and culture in the curricula. They argued for an ASEAN-oriented curriculum in pre-service education that allows for renewed linguistic and cultural competence to be integrated within teacher education.

5.2 EMI programmes

As reported by Hamied and Lengkanawati (Reference Hamied, Lengkanawati, Barnard and Hasim2018), EMI study programmes have existed in Indonesian higher education since the 1920s with the first graduates becoming very proficient in English. In its further development, the implementation of EMI must take into consideration the multilingual and multicultural nature of Indonesia, both from the point of view of teaching methods and teaching materials. When an EMI programme is offered in a community in which oral discourses are more prevalent than written discourses, then pedagogically there should be more attention paid to helping students in their writing development. In a community with rich cultural values, EMI contents could be modified to cater to those cultural values. Likewise, given the preference of most policymakers at the national level to maintain the national language and the existing indigenous languages, questions about how much a foreign language is to be accommodated in the classroom should be dealt with first.

Floris (Reference Floris2014) found that students and teachers deemed it important for English to be used as a medium of instruction. However, she also observed that teachers faced such problems as student difficulty in responding in English as the majority of them had insufficient English. It was then suggested in both studies (Floris, Reference Floris2014; Hamied & Lengkanawati, Reference Hamied, Lengkanawati, Barnard and Hasim2018) that there should be a policy from concerned higher education institutions to address the insufficiency of the students’ capacity, in their English proficiency and their mastery in the field of study, as assessed in their entry selection test to get into the programme. It would be detrimental to EMI if the graduates from the programme did not reach the level of competency in their field of study as outlined in the programme goals. English would then become the culprit for the failure in their undergraduate programme, when the language barrier has some negative impact on students’ overall academic performances.

Dewi (Reference Dewi, Fenton-Smith, Humphreys and Walkinshaw2017b) conducted a study on how university lecturers of English and other subjects perceived EMI, in various higher education institutions. The results reveal that perceptions of EMI at the tertiary level in Indonesia are complex, involving not only linguistic matters but also larger issues such as national identity and sentiment towards English as a medium of instruction. EMI programmes at the tertiary education level have proliferated. This occurs as a response from higher education institutions to the Minister of Research and Higher Education's plan to implement a compulsory bilingual curriculum across all universities in Indonesia. It is believed that bilingual classrooms involving English and Indonesian could enhance employability upon graduation and help internationalize higher education institutions.

5.3 Pedagogical issues

Studies in this section have revealed various pedagogical issues relating to methodology (e.g. Astika, Reference Astika2014; Masduqi, Reference Masduqi2011; Sukirlan, Reference Sukirlan2014) and beyond methodology (Dewi, Reference Dewi2014; Manara, Reference Manara2013).

One of the issues in the teaching–learning process is the lack of contact between the teacher and their students. This is exemplified by Astika (Reference Astika2014), who found that contacts between pre-service teachers and mentor teachers were infrequent, and when they took place, the focus of discussion was mainly on teaching preparation and assessment. This could be due to

To improve teaching methodology, the use of the internet has been suggested. With regard to internet-based teaching, Cahyono and Mutiaraningrum (Reference Cahyono and Mutiaraningrum2016) reported on a specific case of internet-based teaching for a writing class. They found that ‘ it improves students’ writing quality and quantity, scaffolds active and independent learning, motivates students’ learning, provides learning flexibility, and raises students’ confidence’ (p. 205). However, the study also indicated the importance of teachers’ role in using the internet effectively, especially when confronted with students who are not sufficiently familiar with it. It was then recommended that more intensive management and training programmes be made available for teachers so that teachers throughout the country could have equal knowledge and the skills needed to implement internet-based teaching.

Other researchers identified issues and concerns that had arisen. For example, Masduqi (Reference Masduqi2011) identified the absence of daily exposure to English, citing the minimal use of English in social interactions outside the classroom where students have quite limited contact with English speakers. This has resulted in students not having real-life examples of how to use the target language outside the classroom. Another problem that Masduqi identified was the fact that very few university lecturers made use of the opportunity to undertake research in language education and disseminate their findings. Therefore, their professional knowledge is always insufficient to provide their students with solid, field-tested techniques and research-based skills, which could amplify their impact on their students’ achievement in learning. From a different perspective, Sukirlan (Reference Sukirlan2014) suggested the importance of providing a place for teaching communication strategies for tertiary students. Four reasons were suggested for the need of teaching time for these strategies: (1) promoting learners’ awareness of using their linguistic resources to minimize communication problems; (2) enhancing learners’ communicative competence; (3) bridging the gap between classroom and real-life communication; and (4) promoting students’ security, self-confidence and motivation to communicate (p. 2033). The gap between what is perceived as necessary at the tertiary level of teacher preparation and what is actually needed in schools, as reported by Riyanti (Reference Riyanti2017), could impact the quality of input in higher education. It was found that during microteaching activity, student-teachers ‘tended to enact identities as regimented, less authoritative, technology-minded teachers, [but then] they became more creative, authoritative, flexible and patient in dealing with [their] students’ (Riyanti, Reference Riyanti2017, p. 333) when they were teaching at schools. Similarly, Sulistiyo (Reference Sulistiyo2015) reported a finding in his study that ‘microteaching courses in the programme are not adequate in preparing student-teachers with the basic skills they need to teach well in the practicum schools’ (p. 248).

Beyond methodology, researchers have been interested in areas such as the interrelationship between language and cultures, language and identity, and learning autonomy.

Gandana and Parr (Reference Gandana and Parr2013) carried out a case study on a teacher's beliefs, understanding of the English language and intercultural language teaching. Gandana and Parr showed how offering an intercultural language teaching course is complex procedurally because an institution has to take into account the already acquired local values and customs as well as expectations of the institution where the course is offered. In this study, the teacher indicated her difficulty in running the course as her ‘autonomy and agency as a teacher were challenged by a number of contextual factors, such as the hierarchical institutional culture, curricular demands prescribed by the faculty as well as limited resources’ (pp. 241–242). A study conducted by Dewi (Reference Dewi2012) has responded to the questions of how Indonesian university stakeholders perceive English in relation to identity, whether or not English is viewed as a manifestation of imperialism, and whether or not English is seen as influencing national and religious identities. It was found that there were positive and negative views on English, but the positives outweigh the negatives. University lecturers indicated enthusiasm to be able to communicate using an international language. It was also found that both teaching staff and students in the participating universities had the confidence to say that English does not adversely affect their identity as Indonesians. Looking at the somewhat broader context, Manara (Reference Manara2013) sees tensions in the teaching of English in Indonesia. For Manara, English teaching displays conflicting ideas between ‘complex interrelations of global and local interactions’ and the teachers’ ‘high awareness of their linguistic realities, evaluation of current trends in English acquisition’ (p. 33). English is seen as having ‘double-edged functions’, as it ‘has the potential to be a killer language or to be the medium of multilcultual and multilingual identities and self-actualization’ (p. 33).

Lengkanawati (Reference Lengkanawati2017), who conducted a study on learner autonomy involving graduate high school teachers came to the conclusion that ‘autonomy was not yet common among Indonesian students, but … in the Indonesian contexts learner autonomy is a necessity and has a significant impact on EFL learning’ (p. 230). She also found that many of the learning autonomy principles were not feasible to apply, arguing that Indonesian university students still expected to be spoon-fed in their learning. This is in line with Masduqi's observation (Reference Masduqi2014) on the difficulty of developing critical thinking among university students as they are mostly not accustomed to autonomous learning: ‘[t]he notion of learner-centredness … does not generally align with learner expectations, previous experiences of education, and attitudes to learning’ (p. 391).

While most of the studies we reviewed were contextually foregrounded in English departments catering for prospective English teachers, we found little research conducted in the context of English language and literature departments. We also did not encounter studies examining English for pre-departure training that provides IELTS or TOEFL preparation for those wanting to study overseas. We also note the scarcity of research relating to the compulsory English that is prescribed in the first or second semester at university, called Mata Kuliah Dasar Umum (General Subject Courses) (MKDU). The same applies to research into the process of preparing academic staff in non-English departments where attention to teaching EMI has increased.