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Introduction
Transition from primary to secondary school in the UK has received considerable attention in educational research over the last few decades, although specific focus on transition in music has only been relatively recently addressed. Research by Mills (Reference MILLS1996) and Marshall and Hargreaves (Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2007, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008) draws upon both general and music-specific studies to provide insights into the educational value of common transition practices for pupils and teachers. While evidence from the recent surveys indicate significant progress in promoting successful transitions compared with earlier research, there continue to be areas requiring further enquiry, particularly that of curriculum progression and pupil achievement in music.
This article explores transition issues between primary and secondary school music education, considering primary teaching practices as an additional resource for the music teacher in facilitating a successful introduction to the secondary music curriculum. As a small-scale investigative project, observations and interviews were conducted at two feeder primary schools and a secondary school in England, UK, followed by a trial of adapted teaching practices used with a cohort of year 7 pupils in their first term of secondary school.
The rationale for this investigation is underpinned by an understanding that pupils embarking upon secondary school have already made considerable development and progress in their learning prior to reaching this milestone in their school career through both formal and informal music education. To forego the opportunity to gain greater awareness of pupils’ prior learning is to undervalue the significance it has in shaping them as young people, not to mention denying oneself access to understanding how best to support their needs in the early days of their secondary education and beyond. Following on from studies by Marshall and Hargreaves, this study aims to consider the research findings in relation to the specific environment of one secondary school with two feeder primary schools, leading to the development of teaching and learning strategies for pupils in the first term of Year 7.
Research
Two publications by Marshall and Hargreaves contributed significantly to this study – Crossing the humpback bridge: primary–secondary school transition in music education (Marshall, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2007), exploring pupils’ perspectives of transition in music, while a second paper published a year later details findings on teachers’ perspectives (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2007). Discoveries most pertinent to this project were those concerning the differences in teaching practice between the two phases and the impact these had on pupil engagement and learning.
Pupils appreciated those teachers who not only included some primary style activities, but who used them to best advantage. The most successful teachers appeared to be those who were sensitive to pupils’ mood changes and needs. (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2007, p. 77)
The authors also note how secondary teachers who refused to adapt their teaching strategies to those similar to primary teaching ‘attracted the highest level of negative comment from pupils’ (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2007, p. 70). Possibly due to the variable and highly individualistic styles of teaching practices involved, the authors do not state the specific nature of these ‘primary style activities’. This area could be somewhat of a mystery to secondary teachers with little experience of primary school environments or of practising the style of teaching utilised at this stage in children's education.
In both papers the authors point out a number of differences in attitude and ethos between primary and secondary teachers with regard to the purpose of music education which may contribute significantly to the kinds of teaching practice observed in the two phases. These are summarised below.
Primary teachers’ views and perceptions on music education and transition:
• A desire to establish ‘good habits’, devise enjoyable activities and encourage all pupils to take part whatever level of ability.
• Feelings of frustration or being ‘left out’ of the overall transfer process.
• Discussions were often dominated by secondary colleagues making ‘top-down’ requests rather than building on what had already been achieved.
• Requests from secondary colleagues were often perceived as extra-musical in nature and frequently related to habits or attitude rather than what had been learned. Primary teachers were seldom asked for information on classroom music activities.
• Success criteria employed by primary staff were concerned with explorative learning – playing glissandi on glockenspiels was ‘a musical activity that worked and was accepted and successful’ (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008, p. 71).
• Primary schools displayed a variety of collaborative organisational approaches to organising and delivering music education. These included visiting instrumental specialists working with individual pupils as well as whole classes, permanent members of staff sharing responsibility for delivering the music curriculum across the entire school, and full-time specialist music coordinators overseeing all musical activity in the school.
Secondary teachers’ views and perceptions on music education and transition:
• Secondary teachers felt no option but to ‘start from scratch’.
• Tended to translate the term ‘pupils’ prior experience’ as meaning previous instrumental experience rather than experience in class music.
• Did not refer to any good models of primary class music as providing a good foundation for secondary music and had ‘no idea what goes on in a primary classroom . . . and have no way to get in and see’ (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008, p. 72).
• ‘Felt the low status of music as a subject would never allow them the time to develop adequate or good liaison practices’ (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008, p. 72).
• ‘Low-level’ comments such as ‘it would be good if they knew that music was a proper lesson’ and ‘they should realise that instruments are not toys’ imply that primary teaching had insufficiently prepared pupils for music in secondary school (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008, p. 72).
• Success criteria previously accepted at primary schools and by which the pupils had previously developed notions that they were ‘good at music’ were removed or changed. Teachers would view pupils’ actions such as playing glissandi on the glockenspiel as undermining the value of music as a worthwhile subject to learn (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008, p. 71).
• Secondary teachers were full-time members of staff with responsibility for music throughout their school, with the addition of instrumental lessons provided visiting tutors outside of the classroom teaching schedule.
Glover and Young also observe a significant difference in the ways primary teachers view music in their schools and note a tendency for primary teachers to view school music ‘more in terms of ‘what we do’ than of what she or he learns’ (Coll, Reference COLL, Philpot and Spruce2007, p. 95). Therefore primary schools may nurture exceedingly active musical communities not readily adapted to the typical notions of assessment, curriculum organisation, teaching and learning frequently practised in secondary schools. Information on pupils’ musical achievement, certainly on an individual basis, may not be recorded unless pupils attend extra-curricular lessons, clubs or stand out as exceptionally gifted.
Further differences in teachers’ views of arts education have been observed in a study conducted in Scotland, where primary teachers express their beliefs in the potential for music to be taught in conjunction with other subject areas towards a shared learning aim and how this has not been exploited to full advantage (Wilson et al., Reference WILSON, RAYMOND, CHARLES, EWING and MARION2008, p. 47). In contrast, the secondary music teachers involved expressed interest in cross-curricular links as the inclusion of literacy skills for a written piece of work, for example, with no further discussion on cross-curricular learning possibilities. Secondary teachers were more inclined to support the importance of the arts through dialogue suggesting vocational applications of arts subjects thus introducing an economical justification for the presence of their subjects in education. However, primary teachers focused on the benefits to children's well-being, social and personal development and achieving through enjoyment. These differing perspectives are indicative of the age groups being taught but may also contribute to a ‘divide’ in understanding, consistency of approach and support for colleagues in ensuring effective provision for their pupils throughout the course of their school-based education.
These studies highlight important aspects in practice, thinking and collaboration required to establish successful transition in music education from Key Stage 2 to 3, for which secondary teachers may be better to adopt a ‘building up’ approach in teaching their subject than the ‘top-down’ perceptions found in these studies. Of course, there is a difficult balance to strike; pupils embarking on secondary school want to be considered as more ‘grown-up’ and take on greater challenges, therefore continuation of exclusively primary-style experiences would be inappropriate. This study is an attempt to look at ways of striking an appropriate balance in secondary music lessons whilst considering a ‘building up’ approach.
Method
The study was carried out over a period of one term at the beginning of the school year within three mixed-gender, non-selective schools governed by the same Local Education Authority in England, UK. Initial observations were conducted within each school accompanied by interviews with individual members of staff and pupils in small focus groups. Following these preliminary inquiries, music lessons with a cohort of year 7 pupils were planned, taught and evaluated drawing upon primary-style teaching and learning strategies for a ‘building up’ approach.
During the initial stage, the principal objective was to observe the characteristics of the teaching and learning within the schools, noting similarities and differences between the primary and secondary environments. Key areas for consideration were:
• Routines, practices, activities, styles of teaching and assessment utilised within the schools.
• Organisation and nature of the physical environment and influence on pupil learning.
• Observation of whole-class or large group musical activities within the primary schools.
• Discussion with staff and pupils on their experiences in music education.
• Additional evidence supporting or contradicting existing research.
In preparation for the teaching practice with year 7, the unique circumstances of each school, pupils’ prior experience and learning needs were taken into account in order to plan practical solutions for enhanced curriculum continuity and improved transition in music. In addition to staff observations, pupil feedback was obtained by means of verbal and written responses to questions posed by teaching staff, evaluating pupil engagement and enjoyment in music as the primary indicators of the effectiveness in teaching.
Discussion of findings
Initial lessons with year 7
Procedures for the initial lessons of year 7 were firmly established by the secondary school's music department whereby the very first lesson involved written responses to suggestions of musical activities pupils may have previously encountered or areas in which they may wish to gain greater experience. These included participation in ensembles such as a school orchestra, choir and ‘rock school’ as well as naming instruments they played with an approximation of their standard or grade. There was some confusion over what kinds of responses the sheets were seeking; many pupils viewed the task as a filtering process for discovering who played an instrument and took formal lessons and those who did not. Further verbal discussions with pupils were needed to encourage thinking of their broader musical activities and interests, where many displayed keenness to learn music and some explained their recreational music making on instruments at home despite not receiving instrumental lessons. Many displayed proficient understanding on the subject from learning encountered through primary class music or situations outside school, however the exercise was interpreted by pupils to be addressing only school-based musical learning.
In contrast to the first lesson, pupils then embarked on a musically active and engaging scheme of work based on performance activities with djembe drums. The majority of pupils clearly enjoyed this project and would frequently be heard chanting rhythm words such as “jabba-jabba-djembe” when moving between lessons. Pupils were encouraged to improvise, take leading roles and discuss the musical and cultural contexts of the drumming activities within this sequence of lessons. This form of whole-class teaching effortlessly incorporating pupils’ kinaesthetic, aural, linguistic and visual learning was a successful sequence of lessons for introducing pupils to music in their new secondary environment – retaining some characteristics of primary education without an explicit sense of ‘childishness’, where challenges were appropriately pitched and well differentiated. Flexibility for allowing pupils to revert back to primary styles of exploration were permitted and to some extent encouraged; allowing pupils ‘free time’ to explore extremities in dynamics or showing each other different ways of playing the drums were acceptable endeavours during the deployment of equipment and resources, and akin to their previous primary experiences.
Assessment to support learning
The secondary school had established a system for immediate assessment to support learning where each pupil had access to ‘traffic light’ coloured pages within their school planners. This was a continuation of similar teaching aids implemented in both primary schools visited and the school policy insisted that each pupil presented their planner for every lesson. The traffic light system was used for eliciting general class responses during whole-class discussions where pupils were asked to show the colour green if they were satisfied with the activity undertaken, amber if they were uncertain and red if they were experiencing difficulties. Another use for the system was for pupils to summon help from the teacher during practical, small-group activities.
Vocal activities
From discussions with staff and observations at primary schools, vocal activities were a key mode through which all pupils in primary school experienced music in class and school assemblies as well as extra-curricular choirs. However, in the secondary setting, self-consciousness became an issue in vocal work with the year 7 classes. One class in particular were remarkably honest in voicing concerns regarding self-consciousness; those pupils who were not usually shy and enjoyed singing were then alerted to these perceptions of themselves thus the achievement of the entire class was compromised. Efforts to encourage reluctant singers, such as competitions, praise, encouragement, rewards and use of props (such as hats that pupils would wear almost like costumes for playing a role) helped with motivation and to some extent deflected self-consciousness for most pupils. However, in some classes there remained one or two pupils who were unwilling to sing.
Observations of primary strategies revealed considerable use of kinaesthetic learning by combining physical movement with song. Efforts were made to encourage this learning style within the year 7 lessons through movements to a pulse and introducing body percussion. While the activities were planned carefully to ensure they would not be perceived as childish, pupils were reluctant to participate; this reluctance was noticeable to a greater degree when the classes were taught in a room with no desks. Subsequent lessons conducted in a different classroom with fixed furniture appeared to be perceived as a more ‘secure’ environment and pupil participation improved. Pupils’ sense of self-awareness may have contributed to these difficulties which would have acquired relatively little impetus in the primary environment.
Setting learning challenges
Setting appropriate learning challenges and taking into account prior learning proved difficult. For example, a great number of adjustments were made to planned activities for a lesson on ‘rounds’. The original planned activity, to learn a new song as a round, aimed to take into account the learning that had already taken place at primary phase – all pupils understood and had performed rounds in their previous schools beforehand so the intention was to revisit their learning on rounds, then apply their skills to something new. In practice, expecting the pupils’ to review this musical structure and learn a new song proved too challenging. Therefore the activity was altered to incorporate a song they already knew but to perform it under different circumstances – as small groups rather than whole class or year group as experienced at primary level.
Pupil discussion
One method introduced for encouraging creative and thoughtful discussion was the use of ‘Question Dice’ – a resource considered to be a primary phase tool displaying six sides inscribed with interrogative starters, such as ‘what?’ ‘where?’ and ‘how?’, from which pupils would create their own questions stimulated by a topic or resource. The dice were introduced twice during the course of a short scheme of work and proved successful with all classes. However, pupils appeared to receive the task with diminished enthusiasm on the second instance (occurring two weeks after the first), suggesting that repeating similar activities would be most effective if used over extended periods of time, and that pupils soon tired of one style of activity planned in close succession.
Cross-curricular links
Cross-curricular liaison within the secondary school proved challenging due to timetabling restrictions lacking the flexibility characteristic of primary school organisation. Links were planned into music lessons almost with complementary roles to other tasks rather than other subjects being taught with equal presence in a scheme of work. An example of this kind of approach to cross-curricular learning was discussed with primary teachers in reference to a scheme of work on recycling. Pupils would write lyrics to a well-known pop song, design and make musical instruments and explore aspects of science. The suggestion to involve other subject teachers in collaborative teaching of joint lessons was found to be a major organisational challenge in the secondary school. However, the school did partake in ‘Enrichment Days’ intended for delivering collaborative, cross-subject learning timetabled for one day each term, although there appeared to be little involvement of musical learning scheduled in the activities.
Conclusions
Observations at the primary schools and conversations with staff correlate with much of the research conducted by Marshall and Hargreaves. In addition, primary teachers spoke of their lack of confidence in teaching music affecting the effectiveness of their teaching of the subject, in line with views stated in findings by Wilson et al. (Reference WILSON, RAYMOND, CHARLES, EWING and MARION2008, p. 41), and time spent on the arts curriculum was compromised by the necessity to fulfil statutory requirements for literacy and numeracy. This pressure resulted in teachers being inclined to marginalise the presence of arts subjects in their timetables, instead using them as occasional opportunities for ‘light relief’.
Discussions with staff within all schools indicated the complexities of implementing collaborative projects between schools; time appears to be a major obstacle for teachers as well as pressures of fulfilling prerequisites of the National Curriculum's core subjects. Staff were keen to promote the presence of music learning in activities such as the year 6 musical theatre production as fulfilling requirements for the music curriculum, however conversations with pupils revealed their perspectives as not crediting this as ‘real’ musical learning – possibly due to the activities not receiving a designated time in their regular lesson timetable or assessments not being made on individual progress as for other subjects. This approach to musical activity could be indicative of observations by Glover and Young that primary schools tend to view music education in terms of ‘what they do’ rather than ‘what he or she has learnt’ (Coll, Reference COLL, Philpot and Spruce2007, p. 95) and highlights a disparity between teacher and pupil desires for how music is delivered considering their age and developing educational needs.
The very first music lesson encountered by the year 7 classes in this study could have been received as an ‘anti-climax’ and a ‘negative introduction’ to music at secondary school as suggested by Marshall and Hargreaves (Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008, p. 69). Rationale for the exercise in this study matches the perceptions in the research of providing teachers with ‘valuable’ information on each individual though, as Marshall and Hargreaves point out, ‘teachers seldom paid any attention to it and was of little use in informing pupils about what they could expect from secondary music’. Similarly, the information given by pupils in this study appeared to bear little influence in practical terms on the teaching of these year 7 classes. Future introductions to secondary music could immediately commence with the drumming activities pupils’ received in the proceeding lessons, giving pupils ‘exciting, inclusive, appropriate and above all actively musical experiences’, and avoiding a potential negative start to secondary music (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2008, p. 74). In addition, the necessity for information retrieval could be avoided if provision for effective collaboration with primary colleagues had been in place prior to pupils transferring, where both parties would benefit from greater awareness of the environment and teaching strategies used at each phase. Unfortunately the time-scale and scope of this study did not allow for greater investigation in this area.
Based on discussions with pupils in both primary and secondary schools, there is potential for teachers to take into account the music of their pupils’ culture to a greater extent, so that pupils are not inclined to assume their musical preferences and informal learning would be unworthy of mention by the time they reach secondary school, leaving pupils with the sense of having ‘little to contribute to their music lessons’ (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2007, p. 74). The notion pupils exhibited of defining musical ability through participation in instrumental learning could perhaps have been influenced by previous experience of what was valued as ‘real’ musical learning within their previous school environment or from external influences. The information pupils were asked to present during the first lesson at secondary school further encouraged this belief – perhaps this is an area in need of a shift in approach and thinking where musical learning of all manifestations is drawn upon.
Initially the ‘traffic light’ system worked very well with the year 7 classes to encourage all pupils to give responses to questions and discussions as a class; this gave the teacher a general overview of where the class were in their learning. However, difficulties occurred once the pupils had discovered a tendency for older pupils to view the traffic light system as childish; this resulted in pupils forgetting their planners or simply refusing to remove them from their bags, compromising efforts for effective assessment to support learning in lessons. Likewise, pupils very quickly realised that by presenting the green card they would not be required to participate in further enquiry. In response to this, the teacher would make efforts to challenge the green responses with the potential adverse effect of losing the attention of the majority through focusing on a small number of individuals. The changing reactions pupils had towards the use of traffic light coloured planners could have been products of pupils’ heightened awareness of themselves in their more mature environment, pressure from their peers and self-consciousness. Another consideration would be that these tools, as with the Question Dice, were used too frequently to keep pupils engaged with them and consequently compromised their effectiveness. This area of the teaching practice would benefit from further investigation in future teaching.
The origin of the poor response to singing activities may not only lie in self-consciousness but perhaps supports research findings where a significant number of pupils voiced dislike or indifference to singing in primary school (Marshall & Hargreaves, Reference MARSHALL and HARGREAVES2007, p. 72). Closely connected with this issue is the difficulty in setting appropriate learning challenges and objectives for lessons; through the course of lesson sequences these became easier to gauge partly through building relationships with the pupils and building one's confidence in adapting teaching strategies spontaneously in addition to creating learning objectives which allow for flexibility in interpretation.
Areas for further investigation
The subject of transition and transfer in music education is complex and highly individual to the schools and communities involved. This small-scale study has touched on a number of ideas and considerations for a secondary music teacher from which to develop future work. This could include addressing the following:
• The effectiveness of musical activities, particularly vocal work, typically found in primary schools as engaging, enjoyable and relevant musical experiences as pupils mature.
• Further investigation into specific practical solutions for providing engaging musical experiences for pupils transferring from primary school.
• Encouragement of dialogue with pupils concerning not just their formal experiences in music but also one which can capitalise on pupils’ informal education for more effective teaching and learning.
• Exploration of ideological perspectives of primary and secondary teachers, exploring the impact on teaching styles and pupil learning.
• Devising methods of greater collaboration between primary and secondary schools within arts subjects similar to those practised in core subject areas.
• Designing curriculum content and organisation to encourage true integration and equality between subjects in cross-curricular learning.
A significant insight gained from this study lies in the importance of nurturing secure and comfortable situations for constructive communication between primary and secondary schools, where pupils and teachers feel free to express their views, ideas and perceptions with a shared ambition of promoting the benefits of musical learning in school. Investing time into the cultivation of collaborative practices with pupils and teachers may in fact be an efficient and effective means of providing quality musical experiences in the long term, where teachers are better equipped to offer an education that is exciting, inclusive and appropriate to their pupils.
