Introduction: Silence in the West

This article looks beyond the dichotomy between silence (mo 默) and speech (yan 言) and discusses the functions of and attitudes toward silence in the transmitted text Yanzi chunqiu (The Annals of Master Yan) as a case representing the variety of ideas of silence in early China.Footnote ¹ Before elaborating on the connotations of silence in early China, I first review studies of silence in the West to help reveal ideas and functions of silence in early China. Silence in the West has attracted academic interest in philosophical, rhetorical, religious, psychological, and legal discourse. Within these disciplines, three prominent features of the study of silence can be summarized.

First, in terms of the communicative functions of silence, we see a dramatic change from treating silence as mere absence of speech, and therefore devoid of meaning and intention, toward a recognition of its functions. Instead of relating silence to something unsayable and unpresentable, as discussed by philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jacques Derrida, and Jean François Lyotard,Footnote ² Vernon J. Jensen argues that silence serves five important functions. It can bond people or separate them (linkage function); it can heal wounds (affecting function); it can reveal or hide information (revelation function); it can signal assertions (judgmental function) and it can signal thinking (activating function).Footnote ³ Thomas J. Bruneau categorizes silence into three types: psycholinguistic silence, which results from an accepted normal flow of speech; interactive silence, which is normally an accepted signal to exchange information or solve problems, but once overly prolonged, could threaten a relationship; and social-cultural silence, performed in religious practices where silence is used for self-improvement, contemplation, or punishment among groups such as Quakers, Trappists, and Buddhists.Footnote ⁴ Moreover, Adam Jaworski provides vivid examples of how pragmatic silence is used in political discourse.Footnote ⁵ Michael Ephratt discusses eloquent silence, connotative silence, poetic silence, and silence as an act of speech, based on Roman Jakobson's communicative models.Footnote ⁶ Eric Swanson further draws our attention to the importance of silence by asking how an unwillingness to talk about certain subjects can become normative over time.Footnote ⁷

Second, while realizing that the meaning of silence is ambivalent, scholars have paid attention to situation and context for the interpretation of silence. To be specific, in a public space, a person's silence can either be seen as an exercise of his or her legal right to privacy or connected to forced absence and suppression.Footnote ⁸ It is also possible that a person's silent agreement turns out to be perceived as humiliation or disrespect. Thus, I agree with Fernando Poyatos that silence always has to be analyzed within its verbal context so as to grasp features such as its intensity and location.Footnote ⁹

Third, silence has been studied in multidisciplinary research, as a topic of interest not only in the fields of theology, linguistic studies, literary studies, law and art, but also in philosophy.Footnote ¹⁰ Scholars have examined silence from different approaches and perspectives and have also used silence as a medium for the study of wider communicative, social and cultural issues.Footnote ¹¹ These three features are relevant to the idea of silence in early Chinese discourse. They provide angles to reflect on attitudes toward the frequent and conscious use of silence and the various connotations to which it pertains. They remind us to take into account a wider choice of literature beyond the masters, and to pay more attention to the performance of silence across contexts.

Reflections on Silence in Early China

Traditionally, when examining the idea of silence in early China, scholarship has focused on the so-called Daoist notion of unspoken teaching, reflecting on the deficiencies and limits of language and speech.Footnote ¹² The unspoken teaching has been considered the most spontaneous and natural way to express knowledge and value that are both unpresentable and inexpressible in language.Footnote ¹³ Naturally, silence is then placed in opposition to speech and language, which are patterned, articulated, and argumentative. In this sense, silence is seen as both revealing and avoiding the deficiency of language and the limits of speech.

However, this dichotomy between silence and speech has been challenged.Footnote ¹⁴ Many scholars have disputed the idea of treating silence in the Zhuangzi, for example, as anti-language.Footnote ¹⁵ First, as rightly put by Mark Edward Lewis, the Zhuangzi uses other kinds of language, such as poetry, verse, and silence, to overthrow ordinary utterances that are polluted by rules and standards, so as to describe the ineffable.Footnote ¹⁶ While recognizing the limits of ordinary utterances, the Zhuangzi does not negate the value of language. Instead, other forms of linguistic expression are promoted, including silence. Second, Lewis argues that series of rhymed questions are left unanswered since they already imply what ought to be done, as shown at the beginning of the chapter “The Turning of Heaven” (Tian Yun 天運), for example.Footnote ¹⁷ In this sense, silence is seen as an assertion of authority.Footnote ¹⁸ Daniel Fried argues that silence, when used to show anti-ethical ideas within the Zhuangzi, does not presuppose a consensus between whether that thing is something or nothing.Footnote ¹⁹ Third, Romain Graziani has pointed out that in the chapter “Tian Zifang” 田子方, silence is used to express the overwhelming feeling when words cannot express one's understanding and emotions.Footnote ²⁰ Fourth, Chad Hansen disagrees with the anti-language reading of the Zhuangzi, since language itself is natural and as a result any act against it becomes self-destructive.Footnote ²¹

Scholarly reflections on the idea of silence inform us that we should not just categorize silence as an act of anti-language. Daoist ideas on silence should also not be taken as representing the whole of early China. In light of the above, this article shows that in early China, silence is as argumentative as speech, and as articulated as language. Starting from a survey of dialogues, stories, and arguments in texts such as Yanzi chunqiu, I show that silence is often explicitly marked and explained within the text and used actively, purposefully, and meaningfully to communicate ideas. In other words, silence is anything but natural and spontaneous. Rather, it is intentionally adopted, consciously crafted, and strategically performed in public to inform, reveal, express ideas, remonstrate, and motivate audiences.

I start with the Yanzi chunqiu to present the communicative functions of silence because this text is often ignored in discussions on silence. More importantly, it frequently employs, clearly marks, and contextually interprets silence, and it therefore presents a strong case to highlight the argumentative and communicative functions of silence. Furthermore, silence in this text contains a variety of functions, including remonstration and persuasion, and affective, ethical, emotional, and political functions. This prominence makes it an ideal case to sharpen our sensitivity to silence and provides new perspectives to engage with other early Chinese texts.

Features and Definition of Silence in Early China

Three features of silence can be identified. First, instead of focusing on what silence is, early Chinese texts reveal how silence is purposefully performed and strategically practiced by masters and politicians, revealing different attitudes toward and functions of silence. For this reason, silence in early China is never seen as devoid of meaning. Instead, it is seen as an important linguistic device to deliver messages, to persuade, to remonstrate and to provoke an emotional response. Second, different readings of the context influence the connotations of silence. The connotations of silence vary depending on the location where communication took place, readers’ assumption of the interlocuter's motivation, the social status within the conversers, and social perceptions of silence, and so forth. Third, the choice and application of marked silence is not limited to Daoist discourse but occurs in philosophical, political, and historical contexts. Silence and speech are not mutually exclusive. Instead, silence is a different mode of communication, consciously and intentionally performed to communicate ideas and generate participation.Footnote ²² It is also different from the deprivation of one's right to speech, nor is it the same as stillness (such as meditation), which entails a rejection of interaction.

Such features of silence challenge generally accepted definitions. This article tentatively defines silence in early Chinese texts as an active means, consciously chosen and performed by the speaker to inform, persuade, remonstrate with, and motivate audiences and readers. It is not just an absence of sound, but instead refers to an intentional pause in discourse, a question deliberately left unanswered, a refusal to comment, or a rejection of an action.Footnote ²³ To be specific, this article looks at expressions of silence, such as wu / mo gan yan 勿 / 莫敢言, bu da 不答, bu dui 不對, bu yan 不言, mo 默, bu ying 不應, bu ke yu yan 不可與言.

My discussion of silence in this article spans a spectrum between “indirect remonstrance” and “confrontational criticism.” The idea of indirect remonstrance was advanced by David Schaberg in his discussion on the performance of sighing (tan 嘆) in Zuo zhuan 左傳.Footnote ²⁴ It is understood as a more effective, strategic and powerful way of stating one's ideas, wherein speech is secondary to one's argument. Schaberg draws our attention to an anecdote about a lawsuit, in which Wei Shu 魏舒, who was in charge of the city Gengyang 梗陽 in Jin 晉, was caught red-handed by his son as he was about to receive a bribe from a litigating family. Having finished eating, instead of enjoying the meal as one should, Wei Shu's son and his two household retainers sighed three times. The sighs function as coded language, first to suggest Wei Shu's greed, then in expectation of his self-correction, and finally to have others correct themselves. In this case, the indirect criticism is provided by a series of sighs instead of speech.Footnote ²⁵ It is worth noting that the use of “indirect” here is in contrast with argumentative speech that is confrontational and straightforward. One should not understand the use of indirect speech as either a compromised way of criticism, or a result of silencing.

On the other end of the spectrum, we find a kind of non-verbal remonstrance by means of confrontational criticism.Footnote ²⁶ Milburn has noted a case recorded in the Han Feizi 韓非子 where the blind Master Shi Kuang 師曠 hurled (Zhuang 撞) his qin 琴 at Lord Ping of Jin 晉平公 after hearing his claim that the pleasure of being a ruler lies in giving orders without being disobeyed. Similar narratives appear in the Shuo yuan 說苑, when Music Master Jing 景 picked up his qin and threw it at Marquis Wen of Wei 魏文侯, forcing the latter to realize his serious mistake.Footnote ²⁷ Offering criticism through confrontation, as performed by Shi Kuang not only reveals the anger and disappointment of the adviser, but also the outrageousness and ludicrousness of the ruler's ideas.

These functions of silence do not exclude each other. When silence is intentionally employed and purposefully performed, it can be used as indirect remonstrance in situations where debates and speeches do not work, or when words obviously lead to danger and punishments. Silence also functions as a means of direct confrontation when fixed answers are expected, or words only lead to indifference. What lies in between is that, for example, silence allows room for interpretation and self-correction, with its ambiguous connotations facilitating the rhetoric either by reinforcing or disputing its already existed rhetorical tones.

Providing a general definition does not mean that this article ignores cultural context. I am aware that some scholars, such as Takie Sugiyawa Lebra, assume that silence can be a cultural phenomenon. Lebra has explained how the Japanese value silence as a way of expressing truthfulness, social discretion, embarrassment in the expression of love, and defiance.Footnote ²⁸ But I agree with Ryuko Kubota that without a strong empirical foundation, the formulated cultural dichotomy between East and West regarding silence requires further reflection.Footnote ²⁹ Thus, instead of focusing my discussion on silence as a cultural phenomenon, I discuss the importance of silence as a counterpart to speech, by revealing how and why silence is used. Such uses of silence could be shared by many different cultures, with its various applications decided by circumstances, timing, and context.

Silence in Yanzi chunqiu

Silence is frequently a topic of criticism in Yanzi chunqiu. When the ruler's ignorance of the people's suffering and death manifests itself in the silence of his subordinates, Yanzi questions the ruler's political legitimacy and presents a direct remonstrance about his failure to be a good ruler.Footnote ³⁰ Yanzi believes that when the ruler acts sternly during court audiences, his inferiors tend to silence themselves, while the ruler for all intents and purposes becomes deaf.Footnote ³¹ Ironically, while Yanzi was known as an eloquent advisor and witty minister, we also frequently see him perform silence as an act of remonstrance.

The performance of silence in Yanzi chunqiu is effective and argumentative. In many cases, Yanzi adopts performative silence to differentiate and disassociate himself from his political opponents, such as Liangqiu Ju 梁丘據, an unprincipled supporter of Lord Jing 景公, as is shown in the following story. When Lord Jing was ill for an extended period of time, he decided to execute his historian and ritual official to show his penitence to God and pray for longevity. When Liangqiu Ju and Yanzi were summoned for their opinions, Yanzi kept silent, while Liangqiu Ju jumped at the chance to show his support.Footnote ³²

While annotators did not pay attention to Yanzi's silence in this passage, it connotates multiple meanings. The silence of Yanzi makes its own claims. It shows his disagreement with Lord Jing's intention to kill. While Lord Jing asks for his advisors’ opinions, he already assumes they will be in full support. “Would that be acceptable?” (qi ke hu 其可乎) is a rhetorical question implying an imperative yes. When that anticipated support fails to materialize (bu dui 不對), Yanzi clearly demonstrates his stance. His silence allows him to disassociate himself from Liangqiu Ju's flattering endorsement while at the same time inviting a sympathetic reading of his own silence. He does not use words against words, but silence to dismiss words. Second, Yanzi's act of silence is used to arouse curiosity and to stimulate self-examination. When a set answer is expected, silence appears surprising and leads to further questioning. As indicated by Jaworski, “silence occurs and is perceived as significant and meaningful when speaking is expected by the listener but intentionally withheld by the speaker.”Footnote ³⁵ The audience's attention is thus redirected towards Yanzi's explanation of his silence. Lord Jing in his surprise is in turn stimulated to reflect on his actions. Third, the act of silence here sarcastically performs Lord Jing's silencing of his ministers and his people. It conveys the message that his lordship has forced many loyal ministers and advisors to silence themselves. Yanzi's silence empowers his remonstrance by associating his own unspeakable situation with the dilemma of the people of Qi. Silence becomes the only option for their prayers, since if they speak the truth they cannot but blame Lord Jing and risk serious consequences, but if they pray for Lord Jing and cover up his mistakes, then they will be lying to God on High. Yanzi uses his silence to reveal the foolishness of Lord Jing's actions as well as the silent intensity of the people's discontent.

But why silence? For such an eloquent advisor, why does silence present a stronger remonstrance than speech? In order to provide an answer, we first need to know the image of Lord Jing of Qi and Liangqiu Ju in the Yanzi chunqiu. The image of Lord Jing has two prominent features. On the one hand, according to Olivia Milburn, Lord Jing is portrayed as “hasty and extravagant, he speaks without thinking and acts without deliberation; thus, though often well-meaning, he has little idea of the practical effects of his decisions.”Footnote ³⁶ On the other hand, we cannot ignore the remarkable situation, rightly pointed out by Yuri Pines, where Yanzi chunqiu presents us with a special intellectual atmosphere and a culture of addressing the ruler. Different from the cautious tone used in the Xunzi, or the subservient tone used in Li Si's 李斯 memorials, the tone of the advisor in Yanzi chunqiu is self-confident and instructive. The ruler is presented akin to a humble student, willing to listen to the advice and criticism of his teacher, Yanzi, even though the ruler has some character drawbacks and lacks wisdom.Footnote ³⁷ That is to say, while Yanzi is never able to impose his ideas on his ruler during his forty-seven years of service in Lord Jing's administration, he is in fact a powerful advisor who is trusted, accepted, and allowed to challenge the ruler. These two factors suggest that performative silence is by no means an indication that Master Yan wants to be more accommodating and less direct. On the contrary, silence may be more powerful than words, especially when facing a ruler who has a humble attitude and is open to learning, but is lacking in deliberative ability and practical wisdom. Silence opens up a reflective space for Lord Jing and facilitates Yanzi's argument, which would otherwise have been undermined by Lord Jing's fixed ideas. Lastly, we should not forget that Yanzi needs to persuade Lord Jing while disputing an equally eloquent and well-liked minister, Liangqiu Ju. Silence makes Yanzi's remonstrance stand out in comparison.

The image of Liangqiu Ju has the following features that are relevant to Yanzi's decision to be silent. First, Liangqiu Ju is trusted and liked by Lord Jing due to his unconditional support. We see this after the death of Liangqiu Ju, where Lord Jing refers Ju's loyalty and love for him as the reason to give him a lavish funeral.Footnote ³⁸ Lord Jing even states that Ju is the minister that he cannot live without in order to enjoy himself and his rule.Footnote ³⁹ Second, Liangqiu Ju is a big flatterer who is in constant agreement with Lord Jing. Lord Jing believes that he and Ju complete each other and are in harmony (he 和) with one another. Third, according to Yanzi, Ju is corrupt, cruel, and perverted—in short, a bad influence on the ruler.Footnote ⁴⁰ When arguing against such a minister, who is loved, trusted and always in harmony with Lord Jing, Yanzi's decision to remain silent not only shows his fundamental difference from Ju, but also frees him from falling into meaningless debate and avoids directly offending a well-trusted minister. Liangqiu Ju uses his words to support killing, while Yanzi uses his silence to save lives. In the following story, we see how Yanzi regards the choice of silence as a moral action that can save lives, while providing advice to the ruler in an indirect way.

When a grand diviner informs Lord Jing that he can make the earth move, Lord Jing asks Yanzi whether he thinks such a thing is possible. Yanzi gives no reply and remains silent (moran budui 默然不對).

In this case, we see how Yanzi's decision to remain silent not only allows him to fulfil his role as a loyal minister, but also confirms him as a benevolent person who does not want to harm another. Yanzi's decision to be silent helps him to resolve indirectly a dilemma that he would otherwise have had to face directly. Had he revealed the misleading information from the Grand Diviner, the diviner would probably be killed. However, he would not have been a loyal minister if he would have seen his lordship misled without speaking out. While remaining silent in public and persuading the Grand Diviner in private, Yanzi provides merciful time and opportunity for the diviner to correct himself. As a result of the diviner's self-correction, his life is saved and at the same time the ruler is well-informed, while Yanzi keeps himself behind the curtain without proclaiming his charitable act.

In the following story, we see Yanzi's remonstrating through singing (ge 歌), sighing (tan 歎), and crying (liuti 流涕)—three actions associated with emotions of sadness and disappointment, and not fitting the theme of a celebratory feast. More importantly, we see how Yanzi's decision to remain silent reveals how he keeps the moral high ground in his ministership.

Yanzi's silence functions morally, since he saves the people from hardship and takes responsibility for his ruler's actions without explanation or bragging. Without a word on how and why he did what he did, he disowns his virtuous behavior at court. As Felix Adler argues, “the highest form of charitable acts is accompanied with silence and without being undermined by emphasis and advertisement.”Footnote ⁴⁵

Yanzi's silence also shows his high ministership. His silence in court protected Lord Jing from revealing his ignorance, cruelty, and foolishness. While Lord Jing agrees to stop the construction, it is ironically not because he sincerely thinks that building such a luxurious tower is problematic, but because Yanzi was extremely sad. Yanzi bowed twice and then left silently. He did not plan to either advise by further correcting Lord Jing, nor did he explain how he would save his reputation. Yanzi's silence in court facilitates what he says at the construction site. He not only praises Lord Jing for giving the people shelter and support, but also takes full responsibility for the disaster. Yanzi's cruel suppression of the laborers is timed with his lordship's charitable order to stop the construction. By doing so, Yanzi's silence subverts his own image in favor of that of the ruler.

From the previous case studies, we can summarize that there are a wide variety of attitudes towards silence in Yanzi chunqiu. Silence can be a sign of indifference and ignorance, either when a ruler or an official reacts silently in the face of people's suffering, or when an ill-informed question is asked. We also see a tense and dangerous political atmosphere wherein officials and citizens remain mute in the presence of their superiors. Silence in Yanzi chunqiu shows us that it is not merely a spontaneous and natural way to express the truth not articulated through language and speech. It is a linguistic device purposefully and carefully adopted to achieve specific goals. First, it can be read as a form of coded language with illocutionary force. For example, from the ruler's reactions described in Yanzi chunqiu, we see that the silence of ministers is understood as implying a negotiable answer. When Yanzi replied with silence to the lie of the Grand Diviner, he bought him a second chance to correct himself and prevented the ruler from being fooled. Second, silence as a moral act not only allows one to disown one's moral act, but also provides room for reflection. When Yanzi kept silent in court about Lord Jing's cruel building project, he saved people's lives while at the same time saving the ruler's face. Yanzi silently teaches Lord Jing by his timely performance of humanity and loyalty. Third, silence marks power dynamics. A ruler's tolerance and acceptance of a subordinate's silence shows respect and inclusion, as in the relationship between Yanzi and the Lord of Jing. Fourth, silence facilitates various rhetorical functions. Since silence is open to interpretation and thus ambiguous and context dependent, it can reinforce various rhetorical tones. This is shown in Yanzi's performance of silence as a way of showing indirect remonstrance but not acquiescence, for instance. Fifth, silence is associated with various emotions. Whether one is overwhelmed, feeling respect or contempt, disappointed or fulfilled, all can be shown through silence.

Silence Beyond the Yanzi chunqiu

These features of silence are not exclusive to Yanzi chunqiu. Silence is valued in the Analects 論語, for example, because it can direct one towards the daily performance of moral values, instead of talking about it. Arabella Lyon argues that silence is used in the Analects as a positive tool for remonstration and for building relationships with the unnamable and ineffable such as the Dao, through emphasizing the worth of actions, especially the experiential actions of the Dao.Footnote ⁴⁶ Meanwhile, only the truly virtuous do not advertise their good deeds. As the master said, “The superior man wishes to be reserved in his speech and earnest in his conduct.”Footnote ⁴⁷ Reading silence as closely related to communication, Lik Kuen Tong also pays attention to the relationship between silence and moral practice, while further relating the silence of Confucius as revealing the metaphysical sincerity (cheng 誠) where a gentlemen teaches only what he truly knows, and silently lives by it.Footnote ⁴⁸ The pedogeological implication of silence is further revealed by Li Lin who argues that silence can not only be seen as subtle art of teaching that motivates students to exercise moral values, but also presents a state to demonstrate moral examples rooted in the constant silence of Heaven, achieved through the utmost integrity of oneself.Footnote ⁴⁹

Together with the importance of silence on moral performance, moral teaching, and moral motivation, timely silence is understood as an act of practical wisdom and self-respect. This is because, on the one hand, a wise man ought to know to remain silent when others are too deaf to hear and are assailed by their own ideas and emotions.Footnote ⁵⁰ Accordingly, when one stands by a worthy man but is too quick to speak out, this is seen as rash. As Plutarch remarked, “Those who have received a noble and truly royal education learn first to be silent, and then to speak.”Footnote ⁵¹ On the other hand, it is seen as an unfortunate loss when one keeps silent if understanding could be reached through speaking.Footnote ⁵² Confucius criticizes such an act as concealment.Footnote ⁵³

The Mencius 孟子 shows that silence allows a wise man to confront ill-oriented questions, while showing wisdom and dignity. Mencius says, “People who rely on their noble status, or on their sense of worthiness, or on their seniority, or on their accomplishments, or on their past acquaintance, such people I do not answer.”Footnote ⁵⁴ When one is asking questions with a strong agenda, one is not sincerely asking a question, but is only seeking a reply with the expectation that their social status and worthiness will be taken into account. A silent reply when facing an insincere question allows Mencius to save his energy and time to teach those who truly want to learn. For example, when Mencius was departing from Qi, a visitor tried to detain him on behalf of the King. Mencius “made no reply, but merely leaned on his arm rest and reclined.” (不應，隱幾而臥。（《公孫醜下》）).Footnote ⁵⁵ He then explains that the reason for his silence was because he deserved more respect from the King, and that one should not try to persuade him to stay in Qi, but rather persuade the King to show his respect. The Xunzi 荀子 holds the same view that, when answering questions, one should judge the intention behind the question. Here, silence marks one's wisdom and dignity, “to speak properly, it is wise. To be silent properly, it is also wise. This is why to know silence is the same as to speak.” (言而當、知也，默而當，亦知也，故知默猶知言也。（《非十二子》）).Footnote ⁵⁶

Second, the ambiguous nature of silence can be read as a signal for different intentions and attitudes of the interlocutor, hence diverse connotations pertain to the texts. As pointed out by Romain Graziani, Han Fei thinks that the king should deliberately keep silent to assert his authority and avoid debates. Through silence, the king can make it impossible to discern the object of his wishes and preferences.Footnote ⁵⁷ At the same time, to protect oneself, one needs to be sensitive so as to see through the veil of silence and judge one's actions based on the knowledge one obtains. Otherwise, it could lead to danger, as discussed in the following story in Hanfeizi:

Paul van Els and Sarah Queen have argued that one of the most valuable lessons Hanfeizi delivers is about discovering the hidden inclinations of others and using this knowledge to one's own advantage.Footnote ⁵⁹ This case notes the vital importance for self-protection of remaining silent about what one knows (suo bu yan 所不言) for personal security. Tian Cheng's 田成 political ambition, hidden through silence, is clearly known by Xi Simi 隰斯彌. However, it is considered a mistake to know what others do not want to discuss openly. To act and show one's knowledge can be fatal, and the best way to keep oneself safe is to know but to act as if one does not know.

When we treat silence as an indicator for alternative interpretations of the interlocutors’ intentions, it reveals diversity in seemingly similar texts. As shown in Guanzi, we see how the connotations of silence differ in a parallel framing of two stories in the chapters “Conditions Distinguishing a Lord Protector” (Ba Xing 霸形) and “Admonitions” (Jie 戒).Footnote ⁶⁰ In both texts, the narrative begins when Guan Zhong 管仲 and Xi Peng 隰朋 present themselves to Lord Huan of Qi 齊桓公 at court. As it happened, an image of a wild swan—which can fly anywhere regardless of the distance—caught the attention of Duke Huan. He compared his dissatisfaction at not being able to fulfill whatever he wished with the autonomy of the wild swan and asked whether it is just because the wild swans have wings that they can go where they please in the world. In both narratives, Duke Huan receives no reply but silence.Footnote ⁶¹ Rickett reads this as different versions of the same story.Footnote ⁶² I read them as two separate stories instead because the tone is rather different, the first advisory and the second accusatory. In the chapter “Conditions Distinguishing a Lord Protector,” Duke Huan asks, “Is it not just because the wild swans have wings that they are able to go where they please in this world?” (非唯有羽翼之故，是以能通其意於天下乎？（《霸形》）).Footnote ⁶³ To Duke Huan, Guan Zhong and Xi Peng are like the wings of a wild swan. They can take him anywhere they want. Guan Zhong gives a silent reply (bu dui 不對), implying that he negates the idea of being the right minister to satisfy the ambition of Duke Huan. Duke Huan further humbles himself and claims that to him, having Guan Zhong is like “having wings like the swan and having boats and oars when crossing a large river” (寡人之有仲父也，猶飛鴻之有羽翼也，若濟大水有舟楫也。（《霸形》）).Footnote ⁶⁴ Duke Huan clearly points out that he is requesting a teaching (jiao 教) from Guan Zhong. Within such a context, silence allows Duke Huan to show his sincerity and facilitate the remonstrance of Guan Zhong. Guan Zhong's silence and his humble words about not being the right minister are only a strategy that allows him to advance his advice.

However, in the chapter “Admonitions,” both Duke Huan's and Guan Zhong's accusatory tone are clear. Although Duke Huan asks the same question, “Is it not just because the wild swans have wings that they are able to go where they please in this world?” (夫唯有羽翼以通其意於天下乎？（《戒》）).Footnote ⁶⁵ it is here followed with an accusation that Guan Zhong and Xi Peng are not able to fulfil their ministerial responsibilities, “But alas, the fact that I cannot do as I please in this world does not [seem to] worry you two” (今孤之不得意於天下，非皆二子之憂也。(《戒》)).Footnote ⁶⁶ Confronted with the ruler's accusation, Guan Zhong and Xi Peng do not answer and explain themselves (bu dui 不對), since it is not worth doing so. Duke Huan's accusation is considered irrelevant, as Duke Huan only cares about taxation, punishment, and his own vanity, all of which make the people suffer. And thus, after the silence, Guan Zhong puts forward his criticism, “Swans may have wings and there may be boats and oars for crossing large rivers, but what does this have to do with you?” (雖鴻鵠之有翼，濟大水之有舟楫也，其將若君何？(《戒》)).Footnote ⁶⁷ In this context, silence is not a gesture for further advancement, but a complete negation of the accusation and disagreement with Duke Huan's political management. Guan Zhong uses silence to express disagreement with Duke Huan's political intentions and his inhumane governance. Silence in these two cases signals contradictory intentions.

An enhanced sensitivity towards silence reveals the prevalence and diversity of uses of silence in different works. For example, Tang Junyi has argued that silence has little value in the Mozi 墨子, since the text prioritizes debates and arguments.Footnote ⁶⁸ However, such an argument lies in the assumption that silence cannot be a kind of rhetoric. Compare the following case. The story starts with a question about how Confucius conducts himself as a person, and again, a series of silent moments are provided as responses (bu dui 不對). It shows how an intentional performance of silence functions as a rhetorical tool, as a reference to one's own ideas, and as a private space to reflect on.

The silences of Yanzi are clearly marked in the texts. He makes the Duke of Qi ask twice before providing negative comments about Confucius. His silence is first used to arouse curiosity. As the duke himself states, the common reply should be to praise Confucius as a worthy man. The Duke of Qi will be more likely to take the response seriously and seek to understand it with more patience and sympathy. Second, silence makes its own claim. Silence shows its referential function by allowing Yanzi to differ his opinions from ordinary ideas, and accordingly implies his disagreement with Confucius’ worthy reputation as well as with his politics. The speech after the silence only provides further explanation. Speech is secondary to the act of silence. Contrary to the way that most people respond to a direct compliment, it would not be unreasonable for Yanzi's contemporaries and modern readers alike to assume that the coming answer will turn out to be rather negative. The silent answer provides the Duke of Qi with the time and space to reflect on the widely accepted ideas regarding Confucius as a worthy man. The use of silence in Mozi varies dramatically in different contexts. For example, the repeated insistence on silence can be used as a threat, a persuasive strategy, and to express confidence, as shown in the following case:

As explained in the Mozi, Gonshu Ban 公輸盤 used silence (bu yan 不言) to threaten. It is also possible that due to his consecutive losses in war to Mozi, he feels humiliated to speak out loud and killing his opponent becomes his only choice for winning. This is similar to the use of silence in modern English, “If you don't … [silence].” Within this context, silence also veils a threat and a punishment, and implies an imperative. After hearing the threat of killing, Mozi responds to Gongshu Ban using exactly the same wording. On the one hand, he uses psychological persuasion to make the King of Chu wonder about his strategic plan, while undermining Pan's self-confidence. On the other hand, Mozi clearly knows his own reputation and that his strategic plan is already in place, thus there is no point in arguing with Gongshu.

Silence also marks power dynamics. A ruler's tolerance and acceptance of a subordinate's silence shows respect and inclusion, as in the relationship between Yanzi and Lord Jing. Confucius’ silence as an answer to Ji Kangzi 季康子 shows his rejection of being a subordinate to Ji Kangzi, both morally and politically, as shown in Zuo zhuan. We also see that in Mencius, when asked an uncomfortable question, King Hui of Liang's 梁惠王 silence and laughter reflects his political power in the sense that no question could be forced upon him.Footnote ⁷³ Or when a powerful man like Master Tian Cheng is silent, a misunderstanding or a wrong reaction in response could lead to disaster, as shown in Hanfeizi. Silence also marks stereotypical social roles, and their transgression. Women in early China in principle were not allowed to speak in public,Footnote ⁷⁴ given that speech allows them to attract the attention of rulers.Footnote ⁷⁵ Olivia Milburn has shown that early accounts of Xishi 西施 depict her as a silent beauty; her words seem not to matter. However, there is another story that survived wherein a woman's marked silence demonstrates loyalty, with the concubine of King Wen of Chu 楚文王 (r. 689–677 b.c.e.) refusing to speak to him as a gesture of loyalty to her first spouse.Footnote ⁷⁶

Due to the ambiguous nature of silence, it can be used for rhetorical purposes to reinforce different arguments in a text. In the Zhou Wu wang you ji 周武王有疾, part of a collection of looted manuscripts acquired in Hong Kong and donated to Tsinghua University,Footnote ⁷⁷ the ambivalent nature of silence is used to arouse suspicion and reinforce doubts, and to confirm respect and recognition. This piece describes the Duke of Zhou 周公 conducting a private divination, offering himself as replacement for the dying King Wu of Zhou 周武王. While publicly disagreeing with performing divinations for the dying King, the Duke of Zhou secretly has a scribe announce a prayer document, to be placed in a metal-bound coffer, with those assisting sworn to silence. The coffer is later opened by King Cheng 成王, son of King Wu and nephew of the Duke, out of suspicion of his uncle's actions. Only then are the good intentions of the Duke of Zhou revealed.Footnote ⁷⁸

The rhetorical function of the Duke's silencing of his ritual assistants, “Do not dare talk about it,” (wu gan yan 勿敢言) is rarely discussed. What are the connotations of this silencing, which appear both in the unearthed manuscript and in one of the Shi ji 史記 versions, but not in the “Metal-bound Coffer” (Jin teng 金縢) chapter of the Shang shu 尚書?Footnote ⁷⁹ In fact, the ambiguous nature of silence fits with the doubt surrounding the Duke of Zhou. The implications of the Duke of Zhou's silence change along with our understanding of the Duke of Zhou's political intentions and loyalty. As we are informed at the end of this narrative, when King Cheng finally resolves his suspicions about the Duke of Zhou, readers will understand the Duke of Zhou's act of silence as being both loyal and cautious, allowing him to perform a secret ritual for the ill King without making his virtuous deed public. Without reading the last part of the story, one could reasonably read his silencing as covering up an illegitimate act. Meyer notes that, unlike the parallel Shang shu text “Metal-bound Coffer,” which declares the Duke's loyalty from the beginning, “Zhou Wu Wang you ji” repeatedly reinforces suspicions about the Duke of Zhou's political intentions. For contemporaries of the Duke of Zhou, this suspicion is even stronger, since most contemporary readers were already aware of the doubtful legitimacy of the Duke of Zhou's assumption of power.Footnote ⁸⁰ In this story, silence is important because it generates exactly those doubts that empower the story. It is also clear that the connotation of silence changes along with the reader's understanding of the Duke of Zhou's political agenda. Without further explanation, the problem of silence can only be resolved once the reader is clear about the Duke of Zhou's political intentions.

As in the previous case, we are reminded that the understanding of silence is context-dependent. In the Zuo zhuan we see for instance how silence can be interpreted with completely contradictorily political connotations.Footnote ⁸¹ When Lord Xian of Jin 晉獻公 has doubts about his heir apparent Shensheng 申生, and he asks his high official Li Ke 里克 for advice on which of his sons should be named his heir, Li Ke keeps silent and withdraws (bu dui er tui 不對而退). And in an audience with Jin's heir apparent, who is worried about being deposed, Li Ke tells him to focus on filial piety and his political duties:

On appearance, through withdrawing himself from the tricky question imposed by the Prince of Jin while lecturing the heir apparent to be filial, this story shows that Li Ke's silence demonstrates his political appropriateness and moral standards. However, looking at another side of the story as presented in Guo yu 國語, which describes Li Ke as a typical scheming politician who is embroiled in a succession crisis, it is more reasonable to explain Li Ke's silence as a political technique, which allows him to keep his political neutrality and avoid offending Prince Xian by showing his support for Shensheng.Footnote ⁸⁴ More importantly, his silence allows him to maneuver between potential heirs without choosing sides.

Lastly, silence can not only be adopted for argumentative purposes, but also for indicating emotions. Once more in Zuo zhuan, silence is employed as an emotional strategy by Chen Xi 陳僖 to achieve his political ambitions. With the help of Chen Xi, who was probably the most powerful man in that period, Gongzi Yangsheng 公子陽生 successfully replaces the child ruler Tu 荼, the intended heir of the deceased Lord Jing, and succeeds as the ruler of Qi. Gongzi Yangsheng, who subsequently becomes Lord Dao, is afraid that his hands are tied and his rulership threatened, since Chen Xi reportedly disagreed with murdering Tu. As a result, he has Zhu Mao 朱毛, a high officer in Qi, announce to Chen Xi that it is dangerous to keep Tu alive, as he poses a potential threat.Footnote ⁸⁵

Facing a new ruler's claim to power and authority, Chen Xi appeals to Lord Dao's feelings of regret, using silence and weeping (bu dui er qi 不對而泣). Apparently, silence and tears allow Chen Xi to show that he is overwhelmingly disappointed and sorrowful to the point of being speechless. With his silence, Chen Xi informs Zhu Mao that at that moment, no words can express his sadness at not being trusted, and his disappointment in Lord Dao's inability to focus on Qi's straitened circumstances, in the Lord's political maneuvering, and Xi's guilt at harming a child by having him replaced. However, we are also informed that Chen Xi is ruthless and ambitious. His focus is therefore most likely not the life of a child, but rather how this child could be a tool to serve his political ambitions.Footnote ⁸⁸ Bearing this information in mind, we see how Chen Xi's performance of silence and weeping helps him achieve political power without confronting the ruler or bargaining for it directly, which would have generated suspicion. Instead, silence allows Chen Xi to break the atmosphere of accusation and move the discussion in his own interests. As shown in the text, in the end Zhu Mao persuades Lord Dao to trust and give power to Chen Xi, entrusting him with matters of great importance to Qi, with the assurance that Chen Xi will ignore Tu's killing. With silence, Xi avoids giving a direct response to the ruler's killing of the potential child ruler Tu. After his silence, he transforms his image from being disloyal to highly moral by directing the attention to Qi's political difficulties. With his tears, he pretends to humble himself and places himself in a weaker position so that he is perceived as someone who is misunderstood and untrusted. Silence is used strategically to help gain political power.

Conclusion

While there is no way to formulate a single idea of silence in early China, an increased awareness of the relevance and possible functions of silence allows us to approach it as a widespread, significant, and meaningful object of study. In this article, I have shown that an examination of the rhetorical, ethical, political, and emotional functions of silence broadens our perspective across early Chinese texts and provides new approaches to reflect on the use of silence in early Chinese discourse.

Silence is not meaningless and spontaneous; it is consciously adopted in debate and is understood as a form of communication. Silence provides readers with important signals that can be used to decode the intentions behind performative uses (or non-uses) of language. Silence invites readers to share an idea and to be included within a community. Moreover, its appearance in political discourse, moral teachings, and historical records, with different connotations in each case, reminds us that the meaning of silence is context- and audience-dependent and open to interpretation.