The Present Review

Consistent with the typology of review article proposed by Grant and Booth (Reference Grant and Booth2009), a systematised review approach was adopted that ‘includes one or more elements of the systematic review process while stopping short of claiming that the resultant output is a systematic review’. The primary objective of carrying out this review approach was to examine the existing contributions, controversies in the findings, and methodological limitations in previous research. In particular, 22 studies on grit were drawn from two major research databases (i.e., Science Direct and EBSCO). Only the investigations that examined grit as an explanatory variable through quantitative research approaches were included in the present review article.

Key Features of Grit

The extant literature emphasises the significance of many non-cognitive variables in predicting successful life outcomes. One such psychological construct that has been linked to positive outcomes is an individual's disposition to exhibit passion, motivation, and perseverance for achieving long-term goals — in other words, having what is often referred to colloquially (and with due deference to the well-known film title) as ‘true grit’.

There are two dimensions that characterise the personality trait of grit: consistency of interests and perseverance of effort (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007). In this context, consistency of interests refers to the extent to which individuals constantly focus on achieving their long-term aspirations. Perseverance of effort, on the other hand, concerns the degree to which individuals can endure challenges and adversity while sustaining personal effort and determination to attain their long-term ambitions. These two dimensions were used as the basis for constructing an instrument to assess grit — the Grit Scale (Grit-O; Duckworth et al., Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007), to be described later.

Benefits of Possessing Grit and Determination

There are many endeavours in the academic field that require determination and perseverance for achievement of long-term goals. For instance, a high school student who wants to become a medical doctor must work energetically and persist, over time, in his or her efforts to complete a preparatory medical degree and Doctor of Medicine degree. In the same way, a first-year secondary school student who aspires to deliver the valedictory speech must work exceptionally hard over time to accomplish all required academic tasks to a high standard. Clearly, these scenarios emphasise the importance of being passionate and having the determination to achieve long-term goals through sustained personal effort in a school or university setting.

Duckworth et al. (Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007) conceptualised ‘grit’ as reflecting the extent to which individuals are passionate and tenacious in pursuing long-term goals. Previous studies have shown that grit is linked to wide range of positive outcomes, such as: greater academic achievement (Bowman, Hill, Denson, & Bronkema, Reference Bowman, Hill, Denson and Bronkema2015; Duckworth et al., Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007; Strayhorn, Reference Strayhorn2014; Wolter & Hussain, Reference Wolters and Hussain2014), academic diligence (Galla, Plummer, White, Meketon, D'Mello, & Duckworth, in press), academic motivation (Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal, & Duckworth, Reference Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal and Duckworth2014), academic engagement (Datu, Valdez, & King, Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015, Reference Datu, Valdez, King, King and Bernardo2016), self-control (Duckworth et al., Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007), fewer career changes (Duckworth et al., Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007), finding a meaning in life (Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, & Riskind, Reference Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan and Riskind2013), greater goal attainment within the community (Sheldon, Jose, Kashdan, & Jarden, Reference Sheldon, Jose, Kashdan and Jarden2015), persistence in challenging tasks (Lucas, Gratch, Cheng, & Marsella, Reference Lucas, Gratch, Cheng and Marsella2015), self-regulation (Arslan, Akin, & Çltemel, Reference Arslan, Akin and Çltemel2013; Wolters & Hussain, Reference Wolters and Hussain2014), and even accomplishing a stellar performance in events such as a national spelling contest (Duckworth, Kirby, Tsukayama, Berstein, & Ericsson, Reference Duckworth, Kirby, Tsukayama, Berstein and Ericsson2010). So, it can be seen here that many studies have supported a belief that passion and perseverance for long-term goals can contribute greatly to positive academic outcomes.

While the results do highlight the positive role of grit in an academic context, it must be noted that almost all the studies reported here focused on samples in the United States, a country that is considered to have a very individualistic society (Hofstede, Reference Hofstede2001). Very few studies have been completed in other cultures (Datu et al., Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015, Reference Datu, Valdez, King, King and Bernardo2016). The situation in Asian contexts (e.g., Confucian heritage cultures such as Hong Kong, China and Singapore, and other interdependent settings such as the Philippines) may be different, with their collectivist values, social norms and traditions, and there is a need to examine the applicability of the notion of grit in a collectivist society.

In the same way that grit has been linked to many positive outcomes in the academic field, studies have also found positive associations with social and personal wellbeing. For example, possession of grit has been found to be associated with greater hope and optimism among Australian undergraduate students (Sheridan, Boman, Mergler, & Furlong, Reference Sheridan, Boman, Mergler and Furlong2015) and with Filipino high school students’ ability to flourish (Datu et al., Reference Datu, Valdez, King, King and Bernardo2016). Grit also appears related to psychological wellbeing among general surgery residents (Salles, Cohen, & Mueller, Reference Salles, Cohen and Mueller2014), life satisfaction and positive affect among Filipino and Indian undergraduate students (Datu et al., Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015; Singh & Jha, Reference Singh and Jha2008), and orientations to happiness among adults (Von Culin, Tsukayama, & Duckworth, Reference Von Culin, Tsukayama and Duckworth2014). Grit was also linked to greater job satisfaction in the organisational setting (Meriac, Slifka, & LaBat, Reference Meriac, Slifka and LaBat2015; Reed, Schmitz, Baker, Nukui, & Epperly, Reference Reed, Schmitz, Baker, Nukui and Epperly2012). It is equally important to observe that grit was negatively correlated with work burnout (Salles, Cohen, & Mueller, Reference Salles, Cohen and Mueller2014) and negative emotions such as suicidal ideation (Kleiman et al., Reference Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan and Riskind2013; Singh & Jha, Reference Singh and Jha2008).

Cultural Contexts and Influences

The extant literature emphasises that culture plays a central role in influencing academic motivation (King & McInerney, Reference King and McInerney2014; Pajares, Reference Pajares, Salili and Hoosain2007; Zusho & Clayton, Reference Zusho and Clayton2011). It is likely, therefore, that culture may also influence the ways in which grit and determination are either enhanced or suppressed. For example, investigations involving Asian students have revealed that their typical mastery approach to learning — by studying hard for extremely long hours (and often by rote) to gain specific academic competencies and to preserve ‘face’ by avoiding poor performance compared to others — is a robust determinant of their academic success, and is culturally respected, encouraged, and greatly admired (Bernardo, Reference Bernardo2008; Chan & Lai, Reference Chan and Lai2006; King, Reference King2015; Liem, Lau, & Nie, Reference Liem, Lau and Nie2008). This can be contrasted with views in the West, where studying too long to outperform classmates (performance approach goal) is considered as a maladaptive approach to learning and is discouraged (Ames, Reference Ames1992; Elliot, & Church, Reference Elliot and Church1997; Elliot & Murayama, Reference Elliot and Murayama2008). With the continuous direction of international testing, which intends to compare the academic performance of Asian and Western students (e.g., Programme for International Student Assessment), examining the beneficial role of positive psychological constructs like grit in the academic context is unquestionably important.

In a much broader context, it is widely acknowledged that the way in which individuals regard themselves within their social environment (referred to as ‘self-construal’) differs fundamentally from the West to the East. Persons within Western individualistic cultures tend to regard themselves as autonomous beings, independent from their social context (independent self-construal) and able to pursue personal goals in life. Markus and Kitayama's (Reference Markus and Kitayama1991) self-construal theory postulates that people in individualist societies tend to embody a mode of self that enables them to display self-oriented cognitions, feelings, and motivation (grit). This can be contrasted with collectivist Eastern and other collectivist cultures, wherein persons tend to regard themselves as essentially an interdependent component within a social group — a sense of fundamental connectedness with others — referred to now as interdependent self-construal. This interdependent view leads to thinking, emotions, and motivation that are other-oriented rather than focused on self. Given these cultural differences in views of self, it is possible that the Western individualistic concept of grit as being a combination of perseverance of effort and consistency of interests may not generalise precisely to collectivist social communities. While perseverance of effort may apply equally in both settings, the Western interpretation of pursuing personal goals across time (consistency of interests) may not mesh with collectivist goals that are more socially oriented (King & McInerney, Reference King and McInerney2012; King, McInerney, & Watkins, Reference King, McInerney and Watkins2012).

Cross-cultural distinctions also appear to apply in the psychological notion of self-consistency. Self-consistency refers to an individual's tendency to maintain constancy and stability over time in their ideas, motives, goals, and behaviours. Studies have shown that while people in individualist societies tend to engage in consistent behaviours that display their motives and values, those in collectivist settings often display less stability. This is because they yield easily to the preferences and values of others (Suh, Reference Suh2002). They constantly adjust their goals, decisions and actions, depending on what is needed in various circumstances. Suh (Reference Suh2007) has asserted that collectivists are more likely to espouse a ‘context-sensitive self’, rather than self-consistency in the Western sense. It is easy to see that in situations or sociocultural contexts where social influences can impact upon and alter an individual's motivation and goals, their disposition to work on similar sets of goals and interests across time (consistency of interests dimension of grit) may not always capture the distinct meaning of determination and perseverance for long-term goals. There is a need, therefore, to propose a more culturally sensitive model of grit that can take account of significant differences.

Assessing the Personality Trait of Grit and Determination

Recognising the potential value of studying the phenomenon of grit in more detail, Duckworth et al. (Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007) created a measure known as the Grit Scale (Grit-O). This is a 12-item instrument with 6 items addressing the consistency of interests dimension, and 6 items assessing perseverance of effort. It is reported that the Grit-O has relatively high reliability (internal consistency) with both dimensions yielding α =. 84; but confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the two-factor model of grit had low fit indices (i.e., CFI = .83 and RMSEA = .11). Duckworth and Quinn (Reference Duckworth and Quinn2009) later addressed the psychometric limitations of the Grit-O through developing a Short Grit Scale (Grit-S). The Grit-S has eight items (consistency of interests = four items; perseverance of effort = four items), drawn from the original Grit-O. The findings of a CFA across samples showed that the hierarchical model of grit with consistency of interests and perseverance of effort as first-order latent factors was psychometrically valid (CFI = .86 to .96; RMSEA = .06 to 10). Grit-S dimensions had also moderate reliability coefficients (consistency of interests = α = .73–78; perseverance of effort = .60–78).

The original Grit Scales were evaluated with American subjects (Duckworth & Quinn, Reference Duckworth and Quinn2009). More recently, Datu et al. (Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015) have examined the psychometric validity of Grit-S in a collectivist society context (i.e., Philippines). They discovered that the hierarchical model of grit (underpinned by consistency of interests and perseverance of effort) was not applicable for Filipino samples of undergraduate and high school students. Consistency of interests did not load on the higher-order grit construct. Further, some studies involving Japanese samples have shown that two items did not significantly load in the consistency of interests dimension in the Grit Scale (Suzuki, Tamesue, Asahi, & Ishikawa, Reference Suzuki, Tamesue, Asahi and Ishikawa2015; Yoshitsu & Nishikawa, Reference Yoshitsu and Nishikawa2013). The dimensions of the Grit-S also had lower internal consistency with this population (consistency of interests = .61 to .63; perseverance of effort = .60 to .61). While perseverance of effort positively predicted academic engagement and wellbeing (life satisfaction and positive affect), consistency of interests did not predict any adaptive outcome. Supporting the aforementioned results, perseverance of effort positively predicted academic achievement (Bowman et al., Reference Bowman, Hill, Denson and Bronkema2015; Wolters & Hussain, Reference Wolters and Hussain2014), self-efficacy (Jordan, Gabriel, Teasley, & Walker, Reference Jordan, Gabriel, Teasley and Walker2015), and self-regulation (Wolters & Husssain, Reference Wolters and Hussain2014), while consistency of interests was not related to such outcomes of interest in student and cadet populations. In other words, perseverance of effort appears to be a stronger predictor of positive outcomes.

The findings suggest the need for a new measure to be developed and validated to assess traits of grit and determination in a collectivist setting. This can be done through qualitative investigations that primarily aim to decode the distinct meaning of grit in non-Western cultural settings. The findings reported in this article suggest that the conceptual model of grit and measures to assess grit need to be reinterpreted according to the cultures in which they may be applied. This will also greatly assist any future research in this domain.

Future Research Directions

The extant literature offered some evidence of the benefits that can accrue to those who possess grit and determination; this trait would be regarded in almost all cultures as a positive attribute to be encouraged and fostered. Studies have revealed that grit can promote very positive academic and psychological outcomes. The field is certainly one that merits further study, particularly in collectivist societies. There are at least three research areas that could be explored.

First, as past investigations have shown that consistency of interests did not load on the higher-order grit construct (Datu et al., Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015), some items did not significantly load in the consistency of interests dimension (Suzuki et al., Reference Suzuki, Tamesue, Asahi and Ishikawa2015; Yoshitsu & Nishikawa, Reference Yoshitsu and Nishikawa2013), and consistency of interests did not predict adaptive outcomes (Bowman et al., Reference Bowman, Hill, Denson and Bronkema2015; Datu et al., Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015, Reference Datu, Valdez, King, King and Bernardo2016; Jordan et al., Reference Jordan, Gabriel, Teasley and Walker2015; Wolters & Hussain, Reference Wolters and Hussain2014), future studies should assess whether grit holds the same cultural meaning even in collectivist cultures. Such research directions can also lead to development of a grit scale that could effectively measure determination and perseverance for long-term goals in interdependent settings. This work could address the issue raised in the study by Duckworth et al. (Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007), which points to a possible role of social and contextual factors in shaping grit; and might also respond to Herold's (Reference Herold2015) assertion that grit is a culture-biased and a racist construct.

Second, while studying grit may offer interesting insights regarding the role of perseverance for long-term goals, it must be noted that most of the published studies focused on examining the role of grit in Western societies (e.g., Bowman et al., Reference Bowman, Hill, Denson and Bronkema2015; Duckworth et al., Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007; Duckworth et al., Reference Duckworth, Kirby, Tsukayama, Berstein and Ericsson2010; Duckworth & Quinn, Reference Duckworth and Quinn2009; Eskreis-Winkler et al., Reference Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal and Duckworth2014; Jordan et al., Reference Jordan, Gabriel, Teasley and Walker2015; Wolters & Hussain, Reference Wolters and Hussain2014). Yet, very few studies have been carried out in collectivist contexts (Datu et al., Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015, Reference Datu, Valdez, King, King and Bernardo2016; Suzuki et al., Reference Suzuki, Tamesue, Asahi and Ishikawa2015; Yoshitsu & Nishikawa, Reference Yoshitsu and Nishikawa2013). This therefore calls for the need to carry out empirical investigations on the way grit functions in interdependent settings.

Third, previous studies relied on heavily cross-sectional quantitative studies to assess the antecedents and consequences of grit; however, cross-sectional data are susceptible to common method variance, which could weaken the generalisability of any empirical findings (Kindell & Whitney, Reference Kindell and Whitney2001; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, Reference Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff2003). Future investigations should use other research approaches such as longitudinal and experimental designs to strengthen the validity of the theoretical conjectures. Qualitative studies are also encouraged to explore relevant social and cultural factors that may shape determination and perseverance for long-term ambitions, especially in non-Western settings.

Fourth, past investigations mainly examined the relation of grit to various academic outcomes such as academic achievement (Duckworth et al., Reference Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly2007), academic engagement (Datu et al., Reference Datu, Valdez and King2015, Reference Datu, Valdez, King, King and Bernardo2016), and academic motivation (Eskreis-Winkler et al., Reference Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal and Duckworth2014), but more studies are now needed to determine the psychological benefits of grit in various socio-cultural milieus. Future studies are encouraged to assess across cultures the association of grit to other key student outcomes such as self-regulation, self-efficacy, and academic buoyancy, to extend the nomological network of grit in collectivist societies.

In general, previous studies have shown that grit matters for individuals’ learning, performance, and wellbeing. However, most of the investigations that detected the positive psychological impact of grit focused largely in the Western contexts. As individuals in collectivist societies tend to hold a distinct set of cultural values, more studies are needed to understand the cultural meaning of grit in interdependent contexts.