Introduction
Thriving at work has received much recent attention in positive organizational research (Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014). It has recently been recognized as an important concept for understanding the human dimension of sustainability, which has attracted less attention than the environmental and economic dimensions of sustainable organizations (Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2012).
Thriving at work refers to a psychological state composed of the joint experience of vitality and learning (Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein, & Grant, Reference Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein and Grant2005). Vitality denotes the sense with which one is energized and feels alive at work, while learning refers to growing through the acquisition of new knowledge and skills (Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2012). A key feature of thriving is that the two components of learning and vitality interact, or act in unison, to create an overall sense of forward momentum and progress at work that is not captured by either vitality nor learning alone (Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2012; Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014).
Thriving at work can benefit both individuals and organizations (Spreitzer & Porath, Reference Spreitzer and Porath2012). The benefits for organizations include better task performance, lower rates of absenteeism, higher levels of organizational citizenship, generation of innovative behaviour, and higher organizational commitment (Carmeli & Spreitzer, Reference Carmeli and Spreitzer2009; Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2012; Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2013; Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014). The individual benefits are lower rates of burnout, better levels of individual overall health, higher job satisfaction, and thriving in one’s social interaction with family, friends and the local community in which one lives (Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2012; Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2013). Even though this concept is important in organizational research, existing research on workplace support and thriving at work (e.g. Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014) tends to be limited to the effect of supervisor support on thriving at work. To the best of our knowledge, there has not been a study completed on its relationship with coworker support. In addition, most research on thriving at work has been conducted in Western contexts (Niessen, Sonnentag, & Sach, Reference Niessen, Sonnentag and Sach2012; Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson, & Garnett, Reference Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson and Garnett2012; Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014).
Although there is extant literature investigating the mechanism through which workplace support relates to life satisfaction using job satisfaction as a mediator (e.g. Iverson & Maguire, Reference Iverson and Maguire2000; Newman, Nielsen, Smyth, & Hooke, Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015), there are no studies that have explored the mediating role of thriving at work on the relationship between workplace support and life satisfaction.
The aim of this study is to examine the effect of workplace support on thriving at work and the direct and indirect effects of supervisor support and coworker support on life satisfaction via thriving at work. This study draws upon the experiences of white-collar employees working in various sectors in Guangdong province in China. We contribute to the literature on thriving at work by incorporating coworker support in this research. We also contribute to the workplace and life satisfaction literature by introducing thriving at work as a mediator to explain the mechanism of the effect of workplace support on life satisfaction.
The study uses conservation of resources theory (COR) as the theoretical framework (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll1989), which has been used as the theory driving the research on life satisfaction and its antecedents (e.g. Cho & Tay, Reference Cho and Tay2016; Ballesteros-Leiva, Poilpot-Rocaboy, & St-Onge, Reference Ballesteros-Leiva, Poilpot-Rocaboy and St-Onge2017).
The structure of the rest of the paper is set as follows. In the next section, we set out our conceptual framework and develop the key hypotheses that we test in this study. The section after that outlines the research method, followed by the results. The final section of the paper discusses the major findings, the practical contributions, limitations and directions for future research.
Theoretical background and hypotheses development
COR
COR theory posits that, individuals must invest resources to gain resources and protect themselves from losing resources, or to recover from resources loss (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll2011). Resources are defined as anything perceived by the individuals to help attain their goals (Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdahl, & Westman, Reference Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdahl and Westman2014). Workplace support and thriving at work are resources as they lead to many positive outcomes that could help individuals meet their goals (Ng & Sorensen, Reference Ng and Sorensen2008; Kossek, Pichler, Bodner, & Hammer, Reference Kossek, Pichler, Bodner and Hammer2011; Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2013). According to COR, job resources not only buffer individuals from the adverse effects of working in a demanding work environment, but can also be motivational and have a positive effect on an employee’s psychological state of development (Nigah, Davis, & Hurrell, Reference Nigah, Davis and Hurrell2012). Individuals with more resources are better positioned to gain resources and are less vulnerable to resource loss, while individuals with fewer resources are more susceptible to experience resource losses and less capable of resource gain (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll2011). The accumulation and coexistence of personal, social, and material resources create resource packs or caravans (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll2011; Halbesleben et al., Reference Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdahl and Westman2014). The resources caravans result in positive outcomes such as well-being (Salanova, Schaufeli, Xanthopoulou, & Bakker, Reference Salanova, Schaufeli, Xanthopoulou and Bakker2010). We suggest that the caravanning of resources is enabled through workplace support generating resources conducive to learning and vitality (key components of thriving at work). In turn, the accumulated job resources transmit to higher life satisfaction through allowing employees to positively appraise their life circumstances and better realize their objectives.
The thriving at work and life satisfaction relationship
Life satisfaction refers to people’s cognitive assessment of satisfaction with one’s life circumstances (Eid & Diener, Reference Eid and Diener2004). Life satisfaction measures an individual’s overall assessment of their life circumstances (Erdogan, Bauer, Truxillo, & Mansfield, Reference Erdogan, Bauer, Truxillo and Mansfield2012). It provides a subjective assessment of an individual’s happiness, and is a main indicator of well-being. It is multidimensional in nature, and encompasses satisfaction with a broad spectrum of specific life domains (Cummins, Reference Cummins1998).
Research suggests that thriving employees are able to conserve more resources in order to meet their goals (Tugade, Fredrickson, & Barrett, Reference Tugade, Fredrickson and Barrett2004; Spreitzer & Porath, Reference Spreitzer and Porath2012). They tend to be healthier, have far fewer doctor visits, report less burnout or strain, report higher levels of thriving in their personal lives, have more social interaction, and a more positive outlook to life (Spreitzer & Porath, Reference Spreitzer and Porath2012). For instance, existing research finds that individuals with a sense of vitality are more mentally healthy (Keyes, Reference Keyes2002), and more physiologically resilient to stressful situations (Tugade, Fredrickson, & Barrett, Reference Tugade, Fredrickson and Barrett2004). In addition, a sense of learning, associated with thriving, contributes to positive physical health and mental well-being (Ettner & Grzywacz, Reference Ettner and Grzywacz2001). We propose that thriving at work is associated with having higher life satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1: Thriving at work is positively related to life satisfaction.
The workplace support and life satisfaction relationship
The two most studied workplace support constructs are supervisor support and coworker support (Ng & Sorensen, Reference Ng and Sorensen2008). Supervisor support and coworker support refer, respectively, to an individual’s perception regarding the extent to which supervisors and coworkers provide work-related instrumental and emotional assistance (Ng & Sorensen, Reference Ng and Sorensen2008). Although the instrumental component and emotional component can be distinguished conceptually, they are not usually independent, as provision of instrumental assistance is likely to be a sign of concern. In that sense, instrumental assistance can also be considered as a kind of emotional assistance (Cohen & Wills, Reference Cohen and Wills1985). In this research, instrumental and emotional assistance are not distinguished.
Supervisor support and coworker support are two distinct constructs. First, the quantity and quality of these two kinds of support could be different. Supervisor support should be more stable than coworker support and should lead to more precise work outcomes than coworker support (Ng & Sorensen, Reference Ng and Sorensen2008). Second, individuals’ interpretation and reaction to the two kinds of support could be different (Huffman, Watrous-Rodriguez, & King, Reference Huffman, Watrous-Rodriguez and King2008). Supervisors hold power over the recipients of the support, and their support might be construed as being directed or supported by the organization. In contrast, coworker support may be assumed to be more personal. Supervisor support may be more closely related to workplace outcome (e.g. job satisfaction) than coworker support, while coworker support may be more closely related to outcomes outside work such as life satisfaction (Huffman, Watrous-Rodriguez, & King, Reference Huffman, Watrous-Rodriguez and King2008).
Within the COR framework, workplace support may be an important resource to enable individuals to cope with stress and to contribute to their well-being. Specifically, workplace support can be viewed as an asset that enhances individuals’ functioning in life and allows individuals to better meet the demands of their job (such as work overload or emotional and physical demands). Support from coworkers or supervisors may take the form of emotional assistance in the form of comfort, caring, encouragement or sympathy. Such assistance may enable individuals to meet the demands of their job, and life, by putting those demands into perspective. Emotional assistance is regarded as a valuable resource (Hobfoll, Johnson, Ennis & Jackson, Reference Hobfoll, Johnson, Ennis and Jackson2003). Support from supervisors and coworkers may also have an important motivational component at the task level, including autonomy, feedback and task significance (Hackman & Oldham, Reference Hackman and Oldham1980). Research has shown that autonomy, feedback and task significance are significant predictors of life satisfaction (Erdogan et al., Reference Erdogan, Bauer, Truxillo and Mansfield2012).
Life satisfaction can also be seen as the relative presence of positive affect and the relative absence of negative affect (Myers & Diener, Reference Myers and Diener1995). Friedman and Greenhaus (Reference Friedman and Greenhaus2000) argued that supervisor support creates a resource base for employees, which develops a positive affect towards work. In this context positive activities, such as receiving constructive feedback in a supportive environment, are associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, possibly reflecting the influence such positive activities have on mood (Niessen, Sonnentag, & Sach, Reference Niessen, Sonnentag and Sach2012). Life satisfaction is a subjective experience (Wright & Bonett, Reference Wright and Bonett2007). Individuals will have high levels of psychological wellness if they perceive their time spent at work, and their lives more generally, are being positively enhanced by coworker and supervisor support. A large empirical literature exists suggesting that higher perceived supervisor support results in better employee outcomes, including reduced stress, higher levels of job satisfaction and higher levels of well-being (Avey, Luthans, Smith, & Palmer, Reference Avey, Luthans, Smith and Palmer2010; Newman, Thanacoody, & Hui, Reference Newman, Thanacoody and Hui2012; Caesens, Stinglhamber, & Luypaert, Reference Caesens, Stinglhamber and Luypaert2014; Halbesleben et al., Reference Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdahl and Westman2014; Newman et al., Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015). There is also empirical evidence showing that higher coworker support results in better employee outcomes, such as reduced stress, higher job satisfaction, and higher life satisfaction (Huffman, Watrous-Rodriguez, & King, Reference Huffman, Watrous-Rodriguez and King2008; Ng & Sorensen, Reference Ng and Sorensen2008; Caesens, Stinglhamber, & Luypaert, Reference Caesens, Stinglhamber and Luypaert2014). Thus, on the basis of the above arguments and extant literature, we propose the following hypotheses linking workplace support to life satisfaction:
Hypothesis 2: Supervisor support is positively related to life satisfaction.
Hypothesis 3: Coworker support is positively related to life satisfaction.
The workplace support and thriving at work relationship
Using the caravan effect of COR (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll2001; Chen, Westman, & Hobfoll, Reference Chen, Westman and Hobfoll2015), we propose that the job resource of workplace support is associated with thriving at work, as high levels of workplace support may contribute to both the learning and vitality component of thriving at work (Spreitzer et al., Reference Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein and Grant2005; Atwater & Carmeli, Reference Atwater and Carmeli2009; Carmeli, Ben-Hador, Waldman, & Rupp, Reference Carmeli, Ben-Hador, Waldman and Rupp2009; Carmeli, Brueller, & Dutton, Reference Carmeli, Brueller and Dutton2009; Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014). A characteristic of a job resource is that it not only allows one to meet job demands, but motivates one’s energy levels and mental well-being. High-quality relationships provide both an enabling structure and foster learning behaviours in work settings.
Within an environment where there is high workplace support, individuals, through interaction with others, are more likely to refine their skills and gain new knowledge, to explore problems and to find new solutions, which enable learning (Carmeli, Brueller, & Dutton, Reference Carmeli, Brueller and Dutton2009; Niessen, Sonnentag, & Sach, Reference Niessen, Sonnentag and Sach2012; Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014). In addition, in workplace environments with high levels of support, employees are better able to open up and grasp their own, and others’ points of view more fully, enhance their capacities for detecting, and responding to, organizational signals and increase their cognitive capacities. There is empirical support for the existence of a positive association between the quality of relationships at work and learning behaviour (Carmeli, Brueller, & Dutton, Reference Carmeli, Brueller and Dutton2009). We also posit that workplace support is associated with the vitality component of thriving at work. Much of today’s work takes place in groups and teams. High-quality relationships with other people in the workplace are energizing for individuals (Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014). Specifically, according to Atwater and Carmeli (Reference Atwater and Carmeli2009), high-quality workplace relationships with others enhance the vitality component of thriving at work, as positive conversations between people heighten a person’s sense of belonging, competence and autonomy. Studies have provided support for the existence of a positive relationship between workplace support and thriving at work (Atwater & Carmeli, Reference Atwater and Carmeli2009; Carmeli et al., Reference Carmeli, Ben-Hador, Waldman and Rupp2009; Carmeli, Brueller, & Dutton, Reference Carmeli, Brueller and Dutton2009; Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014). This discussion suggests the following two hypotheses:
Hypothesis 4: Supervisor support is positively related to thriving at work.
Hypothesis 5: Coworker support is positively related to thriving at work.
The mediating role of thriving at work on the workplace support and life satisfaction relationship
The previously hypothesized relationships implicitly refer to the mediating role of thriving at work on the relationship between workplace support and life satisfaction. A fundamental tenant of COR theory is that people seek to both preserve, and accumulate, resources in order to navigate life’s challenges and lead more satisfied and fulfilling lives (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll1989). According to the caravans of COR (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll2011; Halbesleben et al., Reference Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdahl and Westman2014), workplace support allows individuals to generate a new resource, thriving at work, which in turn enables individuals to deploy them to meet their work and life goals. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 6: Thriving at work mediates the relationship between supervisor support and life satisfaction.
Hypothesis 7: Thriving at work mediates the relationship between coworker support and life satisfaction.
Method
The context of the research
The targeted people for this research were white-collar employees working in organizations n Guangdong province. Guangdong province is close to Hong Kong. It was among the first provinces to adopt reform and liberalization policies in China (Wang, Reference Wang2010). Guangdong province was one of the fastest economic developed provinces in China. In 2014, the gross domestic product (GDP) in Guangdong province was 6,780.9 billion RMB, accounting for 10.5% of the national total GDP (National Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The rapid economic development in Guangdong was characterized by heavy investment from overseas, and exports. According to the National Bureau of Statistics (2015), in 2014 there were 7.43 million employees working in companies with foreign investment, accounting for 30.1% of the national total. In the same year, exports amounted to 646.1 billion RMB, accounting for 27.5% of the national total. The influx of cheap migrant workers also drove the rapid economic development of Guangdong (Mayes, Johnson, Finney, Shen, & Yi, Reference Mayes, Johnson, Finney, Shen and Yi2017). One of the characteristics of the labour market in Guangdong province was the mobility of labour force. The most recent human resource challenges in China, particularly in the developed regions such as Guangdong, included the increase of labour cost, and labour shortage (Sun, Liu, Law, & Zhong, Reference Sun, Liu, Law and Zhong2017). Although there were shortages of migrant workers and high mobility of migrant workers, the competition in the labour market for white-collar job positions was still competitive. The organizations in our study such as the bank, the government, and the manufacturing company required the educational level of the applicants for white-collar positions no lower than a diploma qualification.
People in Guangdong province also enjoyed a higher living standards than that of the national average. In 2014, the per capita GDP, the average wages of employed person in urban units, and per capita disposable income of household were 63,469 RMB, 66,296 RMB, and 25,685 RMB, respectively, which were 134.4, 115.6, and 127.4% of the national average (National Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The happiness-related indicators have also been adopted as the measures of development performance in Guangdong (Zhou & Yu, Reference Zhou and Yu2017). However, a recent study of the subjective well-being of 31 provinces and municipal cities directly under the leadership of the Chinese central government showed that the richest provinces, such as Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangdong, did not perform well in the subjective well-being (Zhou & Yu, Reference Zhou and Yu2017).
Measures
All the constructs were measured with previously validated instruments. Supervisor support was measured using Behson’s (Reference Behson2005) 6-item scale for supervisor support. A sample item is ‘My supervisor accommodates me when I have family or personal business to take care of, such as medical appointments or meeting with my child’s teacher’. The response scale ranged from 1 to 5 (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neither disagree nor agree, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree). The Cronbach’s α for the 6-item scale is 0.88.
Coworker support was measured using the Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison, and Pinneau (Reference Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison and Pinneau1975) 5-item scale for coworker support. A sample item of the measure is that ‘My co-workers are helpful to me in getting my job done’. The response format for supervisor support is a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neither disagree nor agree, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree). The Cronbach’s α for the 5-item scale is 0.88.
Our measure of thriving at work is from Porath et al. (Reference Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson and Garnett2012), which includes two dimensions of the construct, that is, vitality and learning. Example items are: ‘At work, I feel alive and vital’ (vitality; 5 items) and ‘At work, I continue to learn more as time goes by’ (learning; 5 items). The response for thriving at work is on a 7-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=slightly disagree, 4=neither agree nor disagree, 5=slightly agree, 6=agree, 7=strongly agree). The Cronbach’s α for this construct is 0.91.
The measure of life satisfaction is from Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (Reference Diener, Emmons, Larsen and Griffin1985). A sample item is ‘I am satisfied with my life’. The response for life satisfaction is on a 7-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=slightly disagree, 4=neither agree nor disagree, 5=slightly agree, 6=agree, 7=strongly agree). The Cronbach’s α for life satisfaction is 0.91.
The items and their sources of the measures are shown in Table 1. As the current study was conducted in China, and the original measures of the studied constructs were in English, the survey instrument was translated from English into Chinese following the procedure recommended by Brislin (Reference Brislin1993). First, the instruments were translated from the original English into Chinese and subsequently back-translated into English by another bilingualist. The back-translated text was then compared with the original text. In cases in which discrepancies existed, the Chinese version and the original English version were examined, and if necessary the final translation was amended.
Scale items and confirmatory factor analysis results
Note. *indicate item removed during model fitting process (confirmatory factor analysis) ‘(R)’ indicates reverse-coded item.
Sample and procedures
Data were collected during July and August 2014 from white-collar employees working in about 20 firms in a wide range of sectors including financial institutions, government branches, educational institutions, international trade companies, and manufacturing companies. Most of them were located in Shenzhen City, Guangdong Province, one of the largest and wealthiest cities in China. A convenience sampling method was used for data collection. One of the authors has some contacts in these organizations. Most of the contacts in these organizations are senior, or middle level managers. Specifically, we sent e-mails with a hyperlink to the survey to our contacts in the organizations inviting them and their colleagues to participate in the online survey. The survey was put on a Chinese professional survey website ‘Wenjuanxing’ (www.sojump.com, a website like Surveymonkey). Wenjuanxing is widely used by researchers in China for online survey (e.g. Zheng & Zheng, Reference Zheng and Zheng2015; Liu, Min, Zhai, & Smyth, Reference Liu, Min, Zhai and Smyth2016).
The use of an online electronic questionnaire has the advantage of ensuring that social desirability is kept to a minimum and that anonymity is ensured (Lim, Reference Lim2002). We received 307 completed responses. We dropped two responses with missing data, leaving 305 responses with valid data.
In addition to variables measuring the hypothesized relationships outlined, in our model we included control variables for age, gender, educational level and income, all of which previous studies have found may affect life satisfaction (Diener & Lucas, Reference Diener and Lucas1999).
The characteristics of the participants in the study are reported in Table 2. Table 2 indicates that the proportion of women was a little higher than that of men and about half of the participants were aged between 26 and 35 years old. About three quarters of the participants had a bachelor degree or higher. About 30% of the employees were middle level or line managers, with the remaining being ordinary employees. The majority of respondents were from the government and service industry, with only 23% from the manufacturing industry. The sample was relatively well-educated. In terms of age, gender and education, the current sample is similar to previous studies on white-collar workers’ life satisfaction in China (Smyth, Nielsen, & Zhai, Reference Smyth, Nielsen and Zhai2010).
Profile of participants
Method for data analysis
Structural equation modelling with AMOS 22 was used to evaluate both the psychometric properties of the measurement scales and to test the hypotheses. Following Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson (Reference Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson2010), multiple fit indices were used to assess the model’s goodness-of-fit. The comparative fit index (CFI) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were used to test the model fit of the measurement model and the path model. Byrne (Reference Byrne2001) suggested a CFI of no <0.90, and a RMSEA of no more than 0.08 is needed for an acceptable model fit. Bootstrapping with bias-corrected bootstrap of structural equation modelling was chosen as it allows us to test models with both direct and indirect effects simultaneously, and minimizes the effects of measurement error (Kline, Reference Kline2010). In addition, compared with alternative tests (e.g. the Sobel test), bootstrapping allows us to avoid Type 1 errors that may arise from nonnormal distributions of an indirect effect (MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, Reference MacKinnon, Lockwood and Williams2004).
Results
Confirmatory factor analysis of the measures
To analyse the factor structure, all the 26 items in the four constructs were subjected to a combined confirmatory factor analysis. Three of the four constructs are first-order constructs. The exception is thriving at work, which is a second-order construct with two dimensions; namely, learning and vigour. The three first-order constructs and the second-order construct were allowed to correlate with each other. In the process of model adjustment, the two negatively worded items were nonsignificant and removed from the model as noted in Table 1. The fit statistics of the adjusted model were as follows: χ2=521.5, df=244, χ2/df=2.14, CFI=0.94, RMSEA=0.061, indicating a good model fit for the measurement model. The standardized factor loadings of all the items ranged from 0.60 to 0.90, indicating that all the items loaded well on to the intended constructs. All subsequent evaluations were completed with the adjusted model. The items and the factor loadings of the items are shown in Table 1.
Common method variance (CMV)
Although self-report questionnaires provide inexpensive access to large numbers of respondents in a short period, this data collection method is open to potential CMV (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, Reference Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff2003). To address potential CMV, Harman’s single-factor test was adopted. If CMV is present, Harman’s test should reveal a single dominant factor. As required for this test, a principal component analysis was undertaken using the 24 items in the study. The principal component analysis results without rotation showed that there are five factors with eigenvalues >1, which together explained 71.5% of the total variance. The first factor explained 37.2% of the variance. Thus, using Harman’s test, we conclude that CMV is not a serious impediment for the study.
Descriptive statistics, scale reliabilities and correlations of studied variables
Table 3 presents descriptive statistics, scale reliabilities, and inter-correlations of studied variables. Cronbach’s αs of all the measures in the study ranged from 0.88 to 0.91, indicating good internal consistency. Both supervisor support, and coworker support were positively correlated to thriving at work. Supervisor support, coworker support and thriving at work were positively correlated to life satisfaction. Overall, correlations between the studied variables are in the direction expected.
Descriptive statistics and correlations
Note. Cronbach’s α are on the diagonal. All the correlation coefficients are significant at **p<.01 (two-tailed).
Testing the hypotheses
Structural equation modelling was used to test our study hypotheses. Bootstrapping with bias-corrected bootstrap of 5,000 resamples was used. In the model, demographic variables were included as controls to avoid spurious effects. The goodness-of-fit statistics for this model exhibited good fit to the data (χ2=670.30, df=328, RMSEA=0.06, CFI=0.93). The results of bootstrapping analysis are presented in Table 4 and Figure 1.
Relationship between workplace support, thriving at work, life satisfaction. Standard coefficients reported
Effect of supervisor support and coworker support on life satisfaction
Note. Standardized regression coefficients reported.
*p<.05, **p<.01.
As can be seen in Table 4, both supervisor support and coworker support were found to have a statistically significant total effect on life satisfaction (β=0.20, p<.05 for supervisor support, and β=0.26, p<.01 for coworker support). Therefore Hypotheses 2 and 3 on the positive relationship between supervisor support, coworker support and life satisfaction were supported. Supervisor support was found to have a statistically significant indirect effect on life satisfaction through thriving at work (β=0.17, p<.01), and a nonsignificant direct effect on life satisfaction (β=0.03, p>.05), while coworker support was found to have a statistically significant indirect effect on life satisfaction through thriving at work (β=0.11, p<.05), and a significant direct effect on life satisfaction (β=0.15, p<.05). Therefore Hypotheses 6 and 7 on the mediation of thriving at work on the supervisor support and life satisfaction relationship, and coworker support and life satisfaction relationship were supported. The relationship between supervisor support and life satisfaction was fully mediated by thriving at work. The relationship between coworker support and life satisfaction was partially mediated by thriving at work. As shown in Figure 1, significant path coefficient was found from thriving at work to life satisfaction (β=0.47, p<.01), from supervisor support to thriving at work (β=0.39, p<.01), and from coworker support to thriving at work (β=0.25, p<.01). These indicate initial support for Hypotheses 1, 4, and 5.
Discussion
Main findings
Using the COR theory as the theoretical framework, this study proposed and tested (a) the effect of workplace support on thriving at work, (b) the effect of thriving at work on life satisfaction, and (c) the mediating role of thriving at work on the relationship between workplace support and life satisfaction. Our findings are consistent with our posited conceptual framework; namely, the COR model. The findings of a positive effect of coworker support and supervisor support on thriving at work, and on life satisfaction indicate that workplace supports are valuable resources. In comparison with extant studies on workplace support and life satisfaction, Newman et al. (Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015) reported a positive effect of supervisor support on life satisfaction of nurses from two hospitals in China, while Iverson and Maguire (Reference Iverson and Maguire2000) did not find any effect of supervisor support nor coworker support on life satisfaction of employees from a mining company in remote Queensland Australia. Our finding is consistent with that of Newman et al. (Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015), but different from that of Iverson and Maguire (Reference Iverson and Maguire2000). One of the plausible explanation between the inconsistency of our findings with that of Iverson and Maguire (Reference Iverson and Maguire2000) could be cultural differences. The Chinese culture is characterized by collectivism, Confucianism, power distance, and guanxi (Cooke, Reference Cooke2009). Guanxi as a lubricant to maintain workplace interpersonal relationships, has been seen as an enduring source of influence that explains the differences between the Chinese and Western behavioural patterns and the dynamics of workplace relationships (Law, Wong, Wang, & Wang, Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000; Cooke, Reference Cooke2009). Supervisor support and coworker support could be a reflection of workplace guanxi (Zhai, Lindorff, & Cooper, Reference Zhai, Lindorff and Cooper2013). As a result, quality interpersonal relationships may mean more in the Chinese culture than in the Western culture.
The finding of the positive relationship between workplace support and thriving at work implies that workplace support generates psychological resources that allow employees to meet the demands of their job. Using the COR framework, it is demonstrated that the accumulation of different forms of workplace supports act as resource caravans (Hobfoll, Reference Hobfoll2002) to promote thriving at work, which subsequently impacts life satisfaction.
Thriving at work was found to mediate both the relationship between supervisor support and life satisfaction, and the relationship between coworker support and life satisfaction. In contrast, previous studies exploring the mechanism underpinning the relationship between supervisor support and life satisfaction with job satisfaction as a mediator (Newman et al., Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015), did not find a mediating role for job satisfaction in the relationship between workplace support and life satisfaction. This may suggest that thriving at work could be a better construct than job satisfaction, in terms of how employees conserve resources, in order to explain the mechanism through which workplace support is related to life satisfaction. The explanation of this could be that thriving at work and job satisfaction represent quite distinct constructs (Spreitzer et al., Reference Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein and Grant2005). Thriving at work focusses on how individuals seek to fully develop their potentials, while job satisfaction represents a hedonic-based experience at work. The effect of thriving at work on work outcomes extends beyond the effect of common attitude variable such as job satisfaction (Spreitzer, Porath, & Gibson, Reference Spreitzer, Porath and Gibson2012). Uncovering the mechanism of the effects of supervisor support on life satisfaction constitutes a step forward in improving our understanding of the relationship between workplace support and life satisfaction. It suggests that broader benefits to society will be a result of organizations’ efforts to provide supportive environments in which employees can thrive.
The finding of full mediation of thriving at work on the supervisor support and life satisfaction relationship, and partial mediation of thriving at work on the coworker support and life satisfaction relationship indicate that the mechanisms underpinning the influence of the two kinds of workplace support on life satisfaction are different. The findings support the idea that these two kinds of workplace support should be treated as two separate constructs, rather than one construct (Huffman et al., Reference Huffman, Watrous-Rodriguez and King2008; Ng & Sorensen, Reference Ng and Sorensen2008). The results suggest that in China, different forms of workplace support represent important environmental resources that promote thriving at work and life satisfaction. Our results with respect to the mechanism through which different types of workplace support influence life satisfaction highlight the importance of separating out the locus of workplace support to take account of supervisor support and coworker support. One explanation for our finding that thriving at work fully mediates the relationship between supervisor support and life satisfaction could be that in a high power distance country, such as China, supervisors in organizations are quite influential in deciding the career development of their subordinates (Law et al., Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000; Farh, Hackett, & Liang, Reference Farh, Hackett and Liang2007), which in turn contributes to individuals’ life satisfaction.
We found that the relationship between coworker support and life satisfaction was only partially mediated by thriving at work. Coworker support has both a direct effect on individual’s life satisfaction and an indirect effect on life satisfaction via thriving at work. This could arise from the fact that coworkers may often provide support and advice about nonwork issues. This is especially the case in a collectivist country such as China, in which coworkers are more involved in their coworkers’ lives than what is often the case in Western contexts (Earley, Reference Earley1993). More generally, in a collectivist culture, such as China, people are genetically sensitive to social support (Way & Liberman, Reference Way and Liberman2010) and are hence predisposed to react favourably or to thrive in the presence of such support (see O’Leary, Reference O’Leary1998). Thriving at work may hence be one mechanism that transmits the positive effects of coworker support on outcomes such as life satisfaction.
Theoretical contribution
The paper contributes to the literature on thriving at work in two ways. First, we extend existing research on workplace support and thriving at work by incorporating coworker support into our study. Second, our study adds to the scant literature on thriving at work beyond the Western context to China.
We contribute to the literature on the workplace support and life satisfaction in three ways. First, instead of using job satisfaction, thriving at work is used as a mediator to explore the mechanism of the impact of workplace support and life satisfaction. According to Spreitzer et al. (Reference Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein and Grant2005), thriving at work and job satisfaction represent quite distinct constructs. Thriving at work focusses on how individuals seeking to develop their full potential, while job satisfaction represents a hedonic, or pleasure-based, approach to understanding subjective experience focussing on the experience of pleasure and the absence of pain at work. In addition, research indicates that thriving at work predicts organizational outcomes, such as individual job performance, above and beyond common attitudinal variables, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Paterson, Luthans, & Jeung, Reference Paterson, Luthans and Jeung2014). In this sense, by introducing the concept of thriving at work in this context, we extend the research on the mechanism underpinning the relationship between workplace support and life satisfaction. Second, research on workplace support and life satisfaction (e.g. Iverson & Maguire, Reference Iverson and Maguire2000; Newman et al., Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015) tends to be limited to a particular industry. For instance, Newman et al. (Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015) studied nurses in hospitals in China, while Iverson and Maguire (Reference Iverson and Maguire2000) focussed on coal mine employees in Australia. These studies can provide insights for employees in a given industry, but further generalizations beyond the particular industry could be problematic. In this study, we focus on employees from multiple industries, which as a group have not been studied before in this context. Third, from a methodological perspective, we contribute to the literature by examining both the direct and indirect effect of supervisor–subordinate support and coworker support on life satisfaction. Newman et al. (Reference Newman, Nielsen, Smyth and Hooke2015) did not consider coworker support, although it may influence life satisfaction. Meanwhile, Iverson and Maguire (Reference Iverson and Maguire2000) only explored the indirect effect of workplace support on life satisfaction via job satisfaction.
Practical implications
Our findings of the positive effect of workplace support on thriving at work, and life satisfaction contribute to the extant knowledge of workplace support. This study has some practical implications for managers and employees in organizations. Extant research in human resource management has reported that workplace support is positively associated with turnover intentions (Zhang, Farh, & Wang, Reference Zhang, Farh and Wang2012; Park, Newman, Zhang, Wu, & Hooke, Reference Park, Newman, Zhang, Wu and Hooke2016), organizational citizenship behaviour (Zhang, Farh, & Wang, Reference Zhang, Farh and Wang2012), innovative work behaviour (Xerri, Reference Xerri2013), and job satisfaction (Chiang & Wu, Reference Chiang and Wu2014). Supervisors play a key role on the perception of organizational support as indicated in this research. The deep understanding of the effect of workplace support can be very informative for HR policy formation in China (Cooke, Reference Cooke2009). There are many ways to create a supportive work environment through the formation of HR policies (Ryan & Kossek, Reference Ryan and Kossek2008; Park et al., Reference Park, Newman, Zhang, Wu and Hooke2016). The finding for the relationship between workplace support, thriving at work and life satisfaction underscores the importance of interpersonal relationships in the workplace as an environmental resource. Both coworker support and supervisor support have a positive effect on life satisfaction.
From an organizational perspective, perhaps the most interesting finding is that the relationships between both coworker support and life satisfaction, and between supervisor support and life satisfaction are mediated by thriving at work. By fostering supervisor support as an environmental resource and by encouraging support between peers, employees can benefit through learning and being more energetic, thriving at work, as well as enjoying a higher quality of life. Hence, a practical implication of our results is that organizations may consider training their supervisors to be more supportive of their subordinates; and creating cultures where peer support is both recognized and rewarded. Consistent with COR theory, such initiatives have the capacity to reduce burnout and stress, increase thriving at work, improve employee health and have positive effects in terms of increasing positive well-being.
Limitations and directions for future research
The current research has a number of limitations. First, because the present study is cross-sectional nature, it is difficult to make definite causal claims on the relationship between the studied variables. However, the theoretical framework within which the relationships are posited gives us some confidence in which to imply the temporal order of events consistent with causation (Tharenou, Donohue, & Cooper, Reference Tharenou, Donohue and Cooper2007). Longitudinal designs may be used in the future study to demonstrate a causal relationship between studied variables. Another potential limitation is related to the generalizability of the findings to other geographical areas or other groups of people. The respondents in our sample are white-collar workers – mainly people with higher education from wealthy areas of Guangdong province, which may not be generalizable for other groups of people in other areas. Future research may test the model with people from other groups in other areas. A third limitation is that due to the convenience and snowball sampling approaches and diverse characteristics of respondents (position and industry), the research provides broad rather than targeted insights. The research findings therefore should not be generalized to a particular industry.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Prof Russell Smyth of Monash University, and Prof Ingrid Nielsen of Deakin University for their valuable input, advice and suggestions in the formation of this research work. They also want to thank the two anonymous referees for their excellent comments which have greatly improved the paper.
