Historical background and mural discovery

Xultun's emblem glyph (akin to a royal insignia or family crest) was first identified by Stephen Houston (Reference Houston1986). Recently, Prager et al. (Reference Prager, Wagner, Matteo and Krempel2010: 76) have proposed the reading Baax Witz Ajaw, or ‘Lord of Hammer-Stone Hill’, for the Xultun emblem glyph. This reading is based on its possible phonetic spelling on an unprovenanced ceramic vessel (K4996); until another example of the emblem glyph's phonetic spelling is discovered, this reading must remain tentative. Although texts recounting the geopolitical details of this site are highly eroded, enough data survive in the monumental and ceramic corpus to highlight Xultun as a major political player during the Classic period, interacting in diverse ways with sites such as Tikal, Rio Azul, Los Alacranes, Motul de San José and Caracol.

The wall paintings adorn a small chamber of Structure 10K-2 in a residential sector of Xultun (Figure 2). The murals were first discovered by Maxwell Chamberlain, an undergraduate student at the time who, during survey work, inspected an old looters’ excavation and noticed faint traces of paint on an exposed portion of interior wall. Further investigation revealed these paint traces to be part of a much more extensive mural programme covering most of the interior surface of the room. While the north and north-west areas have excellent preservation, unfortunately much of the south wall was completely destroyed when the looters cut into the building. This looting also contributed to the highly eroded condition of the south-east area of the room. Upon excavating the mural chamber, where the murals survive in narrow and restricted spaces, the paintings were documented through manual illustration as well as through a systematic scanning of the mural surface at 400dpi using a standard flatbed scanner. These procedures permit a flat and non-distorted reproduction of the mural imagery, which it would not be possible to produce using photography in these difficult conditions.

Figure 2.

Map of Xultun showing location of Structure 10K-2 (map from Ruane Reference Ruane, Castillo and Saturno2012).

Context

Xultun Structure 10K-2 is a rectangular building with three rooms that were constructed, used and remodelled over several centuries during the Classic period. Sector 10K, south-west of Xultun's main plaza, has more than a dozen patio groups comprising masonry architecture surrounding sunken plazas or patios. Structure 10K-2 is on the north side of one of these patio groups, measuring 20m (E–W) by 30m (N–S). Located outside the monumental architectural core, 10K-2 had a view north-east towards the back (west) side of the formal palace of Plaza A, and an open view to the south-east, where construction becomes gradually less dense along the lower elevation. Los Sabios, 10K-2's associated architectural group, has been identified as an elite status residence based on its location, form, scale and context. Furthermore, artefact and burial distributions are consistent with household assemblages in the Maya area, rather than appearing as a form of architecture for a specialised purpose (Haviland Reference Haviland1985; Lohse & Valdez Reference Lohse and Valdez2004; Robin Reference Robin2012).

The mural chamber is a single room at the centre of the 10K-2 building, with a bench and door facing south (Figure 3). The walls and vaulted ceiling are painted with figures and texts(Figure 4). The images depict seated and kneeling male figures facing an enthroned lord who impersonates a wind deity (Figure 5). The discovery of murals at Xultun is particularly noteworthy because it is one of only two examples of well-preserved and comprehensive wall painting in the eastern Maya lowlands that date to the Late Classic period (AD 600–900), the other example being the recently discovered murals at the site of Chilonche, Guatemala (Bono Reference Bono2013). Comparable examples of what was once a widespread tradition are clustered in the Usumacinta region of Tabasco, Mexico. The Xultun murals are also important because they are located in a non-royal, non-ceremonial context, and yet they are painted with a calligraphic skill, iconographic complexity and fluidity, and textual richness that is clearly the work of master artist-scribes. Xultun provides insights into the tradition of Maya painterly arts with a new local perspective, as distinct from the Usumacinta location. This paper presents a summary of the initial documentation of the wall paintings from Xultun Structure 10K-2; separate publications will present the results of ongoing archaeological excavations of the mural group and continued analysis of hieroglyphic texts accompanying the paintings.

Figure 3.

Plan of 10K-2 structure, with the mural chamber shaded in red.

Figure 4.

Architectural cut-away of Xultun mural chamber, view north-east.

Figure 5.

Figure map of Xultun, 10K-2 chamber. Full figures (‘individuals’) are numbered 1–11; heads and secondary figures (‘images’) are labelled A–L.

The mural room measures 2.7m (N–S) by 2.2m (E–W), and it was modified by a number of architectural changes during its development and use. The original structure had an open floor plan with exterior access through doors on both the south and north sides. At this time, the walls were plain, smoothed plaster with broad red stripes painted at the corners of the room. The room was then remodelled to close access to the north by sealing this doorway, and a bench was added that faced south. It was during this phase that the walls and vault were painted with murals. Ceramic evidence and inscriptions within the mural room suggest that the mural phase existed for a finite period during the eighth century AD. Following the mural phase, the room was filled with rubble and completely sealed, while the adjacent rooms were altered and remained in use for some time. This construction history and termination event preserved the interior paintings, affording us this rare opportunity to study mural art in a residential context.

The materials

Structure 10K-2 was constructed with materials that varied in quality. The exterior walls were made of dressed, mid-sized masonry blocks, while the interior walls, forming the end walls of the mural chamber, consisted of various-sized rough blocks and small stones in wet-laid mud mortar. The chamber was prepared for painting by applying a mud layer to smooth the wall surface, which was then finished with a very thin layer of fine lime plaster. In its effect, the finished room was equivalent to the plastered surfaces of the Bonampak mural chamber or a palace wall at Tikal, but construction favoured locally available bajo mud, a less labour-intensive material than lime plaster.

Use of thin lime plaster over a mud substrate is seen elsewhere at Xultun, including on Early Classic ritual architecture in the Los Arboles group, as well as in association with mural painting in western Guatemala and parts of the Mexican states of Chiapas and Tabasco, at the site of Tonina (Mateos González Reference Mateos González1997) and in the Usumacinta basin at La Pasadita (Kamal et al. Reference Kamal, Ware, Houston, Chabries and Christiansen1999: 1393). In contrast, architecture at Bonampak, Yaxchilan and Piedras Negras favoured pure lime plaster preparation. Although the generalisation that mud-plaster is a facet of construction from late in the Classic period typically holds true, its early use at Xultun and inconsistent use in the Usumacinta basin suggests it may be related to factors such as economy, cultural interaction and class. Further characterisation of the temporal and geographic range of wall-plaster composition and technology will provide another opportunity to better understand these social processes throughout the Maya area.

The pigments and techniques used to paint the Xultun murals, such as the use of a pre-painting sketch, a palette of orange-red and black body paint, dark red frames at the corners of the room and the use of Maya blue, are consistent with other wall paintings in the Maya area during the Late Classic period (see Magaloni Reference Magaloni and Fuente2001). Compositional analysis of Xultun paint samples, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), Raman and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), identifies a range of iron-oxide pigments, including haematite, as well as Maya blue, carbon black and calcite white. These pigments were combined to create a range of colours: dark brown, red, orange, yellow, white, blue, blue-green and purple (red-blue). Across the lower walls, mural figures were set against a yellow background, a technique shared with Bonampak Room 3, as well as local Petén region Late Classic polychrome pottery traditions (e.g. Kerr Database vessels K4572, K5366 (Kerr n.d.)). On the north wall, the seated lord is distinguished by his blue-green feathers and jewellery, white shells and skeletal ornaments, as well as by calligraphic outlines in both black and red specular haematite. The materials and techniques used to paint the Xultun chamber are consistent with artworks by other master artists and scribes painting murals and pottery (see Reents-Budet Reference Reents-Budet1994; Magaloni Reference Magaloni and Fuente2001; Hurst Reference Hurst2009; Miller & Brittenham Reference Miller and Brittenham2013). However, the limited palette of locally available pigments used to paint the majority of figures contrasts with the range of blues, greens and purples of the seated lord that were made from complex, non-local materials. In this mural, specialty pigments such as Maya blue clearly differentiate royal and non-royal personages.

The murals

The narrative programme of Structure 10K-2 expresses a complex interaction between the wall paintings, the vault paintings, the hieroglyphic texts and a number of incised artworks. Architectural framing suggests that the focal point of the artwork was the central portion of the north wall; figures on both the west and east walls faced north, towards the central scene. Artwork on the vault and upper portions of the end walls was separated from the lower programme by a large text framed in red stripes that circled the room at the height of the vault-spring. Very few of the glyphs from what was probably the primary dedicatory text are preserved due to paint deterioration or plaster loss. The lower register of figures was painted against a yellow background, and the upper register of figures had a white (unpainted) backgound. The full figures were depicted at roughly half life size, but texts and isolated faces were made at various scales. The full figures have been numbered 1 to 11, beginning at the south end of the west-wall scene and proceeding clockwise around the room, with each wall numbered top to bottom from left to right. Line drawings or incisions of heads and secondary figures (‘images’) are labelled alphabetically, A to L, in the same clockwise sequence (see Figure 5).

The north wall

The north wall is divided into two areas: the wall itself and the sealed, recessed doorway, which forms a niche. Two figures share the focus of the wall and niche: individual 6, labelled only with the phrase itz’in taaj (‘junior obsidian’), kneels facing east on the wall, and individual 7, the Xultun ruler, sits on a throne facing west in the niche (Figure 6). Individual 6 holds up his left hand in front of his body, gesturing to the seated lord. Individual 7 wears a large, blue-green feathered headdress and is named with the customary royal titles of Xultun (Garrison & Stuart Reference Garrison, Stuart, Laporte, Arroyo and Mejía2004: 852; Prager et al. Reference Prager, Wagner, Matteo and Krempel2010). He holds what is probably an incense bag or censer in his left hand and a staff in his right, featuring alternating Ik’ or ‘wind’ symbols. Additional texts accompanying the scene affirm that the portrayed ruler is indeed impersonating a wind deity (see Houston & Stuart Reference Houston and Stuart1996). Individual 8 leans out from behind the ruler's headdress, perhaps in the process of dressing the seated lord. He is labelled as baah tz’am, a title carried by particular courtly attendants (Houston Reference Houston2008). It is rare to find the title explicitly paired with an attendant behind a ruler's throne; more commonly, these figures remain unnamed in court scenes depicted on Classic-period polychrome vessels.

Figure 6.

Illustration of Xultun, north wall mural, lower register. Individual 6 kneels facing individual 7, the Xultun ruler.

Only the slope of the north vault is preserved; the south vault was destroyed when the room was filled. Two standing male warriors, individuals 4 and 5, both facing west, are evenly spaced on the north vault. Although the area above the chest is deteriorated, their torsos and legs are preserved. Each figure holds a shield in front of his body and wears an intricately adorned loincloth with a heavy knotted belt assemblage. The two men wear clothing similar to that of noble warriors and military captains depicted on the north wall of Bonampak Room 2 (see Miller & Brittenham Reference Miller and Brittenham2013). Individuals 4 and 5, dressed as warriors, each wear sandals and carry a shield with a Teotihuacan year sign (the symbolism of Teotihuacan, a large and highly influential Early Classic city in central Mexico, was commonly invoked in martially themed Maya imagery, even well after the distant city's decline). There are also elements of faded iconography, possibly a text, located between these warriors at waist level. Stiff in countenance compared with the animated figures below, individuals 4 and 5 face the body of an undulating, bifurcated serpent that fills the upper portion of the west end wall. The serpent's head is extremely damaged, but the black, red and white body markings are consistent with other serpent iconography (see Stone & Zender Reference Stone and Zender2011: 201). Both the standing figures and the serpent are painted above the dedicatory text at vault-spring level.

The west wall

Three male individuals in identical dress sit cross-legged on the west wall (Figures 7 & 8). All three of them face north and are depicted in black body paint. Individuals 1 and 2 are both smaller in stature than individual 3—a size explained in a label (Figure 9) alongside individual 2 that describes him as a ch’ok or ‘youth’ (see Houston Reference Houston2009), a title probably shared by individual 1. The larger figure, individual 3, is labelled sakun taaj, which provides the ‘senior’ [sakun] title to contrast with individual 4's ‘junior’ [itz’in]. This type of ranked pairing, associated with words used to express the kinship terms for ‘older brother’ or ‘younger brother’ (Stuart Reference Stuart, Macri and Ford1997), is a well-attested practice today in parts of the Maya area (Vogt Reference Vogt1969: 238–49). All three figures on the west wall wear an oval pectoral pendant and an elongated headdress adorned with a second oval ornament and a single green feather. Small red scrolls or flames emerge near the chin, suggesting a tie for the headdress or possibly an unseen back ornament. The pectoral pendants and headdress adornments are a creamy white colour; considering the uniform depictions of the west wall figures, these ornaments may represent a symbol of office. Aside from the headdress, each individual wears only a simple white loincloth (Figure 8).

Figure 7.

Architectural cut-away of Xultun mural chamber, view north-west.

Figure 8.

Illustration of Xultun, west wall mural, lower register. Left to right: individuals 1–3.

Figure 9.

Detail of titles associated with individuals on the north and west walls (figure by D. Stuart and F. Rossi, 2012).

Portrait heads, images A, B, D and E, were painted near the headdress of each taaj figure on the west and north walls. These black line paintings are located above and immediately behind each full figure, and they face left (south or west) while the taaj figures face right (north or east). Painted with confident and rapid brushstrokes that were clearly carried out by one or more skilled artists, the portrait heads are highly individualised and have the character of sketched glyphs in terms of their scale, orientation and monochrome calligraphic linework; however, their relationship to the full figures is unclear. The portrait heads are secondary artworks painted after the polychrome mural programme; this is most evident in image B, which was painted on top of both the taaj's headdress and the red border stripe (Figure 10). Another secondary group of artworks exists in this area in the form of incised portrait heads, images C and F, which are also facing to the left and which were made in front and to the right of the same taaj figures. Unlike etched artworks on the east and south walls (described below), these incised heads are well-executed portraits. Yet when compared with the nearby painted heads, the incised artworks are smaller in scale and created by a less fluid hand (this perhaps reflects a technical factor rather than being indicative of artistic skill). Thus far, the work of four different artists has been identified among these secondary artworks. The portrait heads on the north and west walls may represent an artistic signature or a personal identifier of the depicted individuals, but the possibility that they represent a form of skilled graffiti should also be considered.

Figure 10.

Detail of portrait head facing left (image B), Xultun, west wall mural (photograph: H. Hurst, 2012).

The east wall

The east wall is poorly preserved due to root damage and water infiltration. Under close examination with variable light sources, three figures with roughly similar spacing to those on the opposing west wall are visible. The north-east corner is the best preserved, yet it is still difficult to see. The low sparkle of the specular haematite outlining individual 9 aided documentation in the field; elsewhere, processing of the optical scans of the east wall through histogram modifications has drawn out details otherwise difficult to distinguish with the naked eye (see Saturno et al. Reference Saturno, Aveni, Stuart and Rossi2012). Individual 9 is identical in rendering and dress to the three figures on the west wall, but he sits in a different pose with arms more outstretched, face to the north and leaning forward towards the niche area (Figure 11). Behind individual 9 are two other possible figures, individuals 10 and 11. However, these two figures have lighter skin tones and differ in their dress and position from individual 9 and the west wall figures. In terms of pigmentation, individuals 10 and 11 most closely resemble individual 6, on the north wall. The poor preservation obscures most detail, but individual 10 has both arms raised in front of his north-facing profile and holds an object in each hand. The line of individual 11's thigh and torso indicates a seated pose with the face directed to the north; this figure has been reduced to only a stain of colour against the light yellow background.

Figure 11.

Illustration of Xultun, east wall mural, lower register. Detail of individual 9.

There are many texts painted and incised on the east wall. Although titular glyphs located above the face of each individual were integral to the figural painting programme, most texts were later additions. These later texts were made at various scales and placed both between and above the seated figures. These texts are all highly calendrical in nature and contain textual and astronomical content, heretofore known only from the Postclassic-period Maya codices—demonstrating the east wall as an active workspace and suggesting potential Classic-period codex book production occurred within the room (Saturno et al. Reference Saturno, Aveni, Stuart and Rossi2012). In the area near the figures’ legs, a thin, fine-plaster patch was added and painted with still more glyphs. A palimpsest in the most literal sense of the word, the stratigraphy of this area contains three layers of writing, all of which are contemporary with, or post-date, the painted figures. One small torso, image H, was incised in the upper portion of the east wall and four figures were incised on the adjacent south wall: images I, J, K and L. Image H is located in a similar position to figures incised on the west wall, yet the incised east and south figures are less naturalistically proportioned: lines are shaky and coarse, and the renderings seem incomplete.