Introduction
Small ruminant farming plays a strategic role in rural economies by providing protein supply and income sources in pastoral regions where limiting factors such as drought and resource scarcity prevail (Pulina et al Reference Pulina, Francesconi, Stefanon, Sevi, Calamari, Lacetera, Dell’Orto, Pilla, Marsan, Mele, Rossi, Bertoni, Crovetto and Ronchi2017). However, gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are an endemic health problem in pasture-based sheep and goat farming worldwide (Mpofu et al Reference Mpofu, Nephawe and Mtileni2022). These parasitic infections suppress the immune system in host animals, leading to serious health problems and irreparable production losses (Paul et al Reference Paul, Jesse, Chung, Che’Amat and Mohd Lila2020).
Although the most common Trichostrongylidae members infecting sheep and goats are reported to be Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, and Teladorsagia circumcincta (Julienne et al Reference Julienne, Fréjus, Pascal, Géorcelin, Adam, Christian, Sylvie, Olaniyi and Patrick2021), H. contortus and T. circumcincta are prominent in the clinical picture in terms of pathogenicity (Mpofu et al Reference Mpofu, Nephawe and Mtileni2020). GIN infections are characterised by severe diarrhoea, anaemia, liveweight loss, growth retardation, and high mortality rates in small ruminants (Paul et al Reference Paul, Jesse, Chung, Che’Amat and Mohd Lila2020).
The population distribution of parasites varies across geographic regions depending on variations in local ecological conditions (Paul et al Reference Paul, Jesse, Chung, Che’Amat and Mohd Lila2020; Sharma and Ganguly Reference Sharma and Ganguly2016). Particularly in the tropical climate zone, grazing activities under semi-intensive management systems (Chandrawathani et al Reference Chandrawathani, Adnan and Waller1999) and high humidity levels that enhance the environmental survival of parasites are key factors increasing infection prevalence (Chandrawathani et al Reference Chandrawathani, Adnan and Waller1999; Paul et al Reference Paul, Jesse, Chung, Che’Amat and Mohd Lila2020).
Control of GIN infections has traditionally relied on the periodic use of broad-spectrum anthelmintic drugs (Coles et al Reference Coles, Bauer, Borgsteede, Geerts, Klei, Taylor and Waller1992, Reference Coles, Jackson, Pomroy, Prichard, von Samson-Himmelstjerna, Silvestre, Taylor and Vercruysse2006). Modern parasite control strategies involve the regular administration of major drug classes such as benzimidazoles (e.g., albendazole), imidazothiazoles (e.g., levamisole), macrocyclic lactones (e.g., ivermectin), and pyrimidines (e.g., pyrantel) to minimise the density of infective larvae in pastures (Coles et al Reference Coles, Jackson, Pomroy, Prichard, von Samson-Himmelstjerna, Silvestre, Taylor and Vercruysse2006; Kotze et al Reference Kotze, Gilleard, Doyle and Prichard2020; Mickiewicz et al Reference Mickiewicz, Czopowicz, Moroz, Potărniche, Szaluś-Jordanow, Spinu, Górski, Markowska-Daniel, Várady and Kaba2021; Sonibare et al Reference Sonibare, Sowande, Iposu, Luka, Ayankosoi and Egbetade2016). Although these chemotherapeutic agents have historically demonstrated high efficacy in improving productivity (Sonibare et al Reference Sonibare, Sowande, Iposu, Luka, Ayankosoi and Egbetade2016), the global spread of multiple anthelmintic resistance has become a serious concern today (Charlier et al Reference Charlier, van der Voort, Kenyon, Skuce and Vercruysse2014). Although anthelmintic resistance development has become apparent in genera such as Cooperia spp., Haemonchus spp., Oesophagostomum spp., Teladorsagia spp., and Trichostrongylus spp. (Baudinette et al Reference Baudinette, O’Handley and Trengove2022), the species with the highest prevalence of resistance is H. contortus. This situation places the aforementioned parasite in the position of being the most economically destructive gastrointestinal nematode in small ruminant husbandry (Fleming et al Reference Fleming, Craig, Kaplan, Miller, Navarre and Rings2006).
The mechanisms underlying anthelmintic resistance involve multifaceted processes such as the restriction of drug uptake in parasites, changes in metabolic pathways, and genetic modifications that reduce target-site sensitivity (Shalaby Reference Shalaby2013). This resistance observed in GIN populations, and the associated risk of chemical residues in animal products, toxicity concerns, and increased treatment costs, severely limit the effectiveness of chemotherapeutics (Gasbarre et al Reference Gasbarre, Stout and Leighton2001; Jabbar et al Reference Jabbar, Zaman, Iqbal, Yaseen and Shamim2007). In particular, the phenomenon of ‘multiple resistance’ developed against most broad-spectrum drug classes has necessitated the development of sustainable, effective, and highly biosafe alternatives for parasite control (Kaplan Reference Kaplan2004; Varady et al Reference Varady, Papadopoulos, Dolinska and Konigova2011). In this context, ethnoveterinary practices and plant secondary metabolites represent a rich source for modern pharmacology. Numerous studies in the literature have investigated the potential nematicidal activities of various plant extracts against Trichostrongylidae parasites (Githiori et al Reference Githiori, Athanasiadou and Thamsborg2006; Hussain et al Reference Hussain, Khan, Iqbal, Sajid and Khan2011; Vatta et al Reference Vatta, Kandu-Lelo, Ademola and Eloff2011). In traditional societies, leaf or seed extracts from plants such as garlic, mint, walnut, and wormwood have been used safely for many years in the treatment of gastrointestinal parasitism (Guarrera Reference Guarrera1999).
Artemisia absinthium, commonly known worldwide as ‘wormwood’ or ‘absinthe’, is an aromatic plant that is also widespread in the flora of Turkey (Quinlan et al Reference Quinlan, Quinlan and Nolan2002). Preferred in traditional medicine systems for its antispasmodic, antiseptic, tonic, and anthelmintic properties (Baytop Reference Baytop1984; Kaul Reference Kaul1997), this plant has also been reported to possess antimicrobial and antifungal activities (Juteau et al Reference Juteau, Jerkovic, Masotti, Milos, Mastelic, Bessière and Viano2003; Tariq et al Reference Tariq, Chishti, Ahmad and Shawl2009). The phytochemical profile of A. absinthium is rich in thujone (α and β) found in the volatile oil structure, tannins, and sesquiterpene lactones. Previous studies have reported that these bioactive compounds exhibit potent anthelmintic effects on nematodes (Seaman Reference Seaman1982; Tariq et al Reference Tariq, Chishti, Ahmad and Shawl2009).
This study was designed to evaluate the in vivo anthelmintic efficacy of A. absinthium extracts against gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep, compared to albendazole, a reference drug.
Materials and methods
Animal material and care conditions
In this study, 18 non-pregnant Awassi breed sheep aged 2–3 years were used and housed at the Dicle University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Education, Research, and Application Farm. The animals were kept under observation for 14 days prior to the experiment to allow them to adapt to the environmental conditions. During the study period, the animals’ water, hay, and concentrate feed requirements were met without restriction (ad libitum) within the limits of the ration calculations.
Parasitological examination and grouping
Prior to the study, the status of the animals regarding GIN infection was confirmed using standard parasitological procedures (Soulsby Reference Soulsby1982) and the Fülleborn flotation method. Sheep found to be naturally infected were divided into 3 groups, each consisting of 6 animals, to be homogeneous in terms of age, sex, and faecal egg count (FEC). The average EPG values on day 7 of the adaptation period were used as the basis for balancing the groups. The McMaster method and faecal culture techniques were applied to diagnose the parasite genera and species and to determine egg density (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) 1986).
Procurement and preparation of plant material
The Artemisia absinthium plant used in the study was procured from a commercially certified supplier, and the plant species was also verified by the pharmacologist involved in the study. The plant material was dried at room temperature in a well-ventilated environment away from direct sunlight to preserve its phytochemical content. Following drying, the plant parts were pulverised using a mechanical grinder to produce a homogeneous powder. The resulting pure plant powder was stored under appropriate conditions until extraction stages.
Preparation of crude ethanolic extract (CEE)
The crude ethanolic extract (CEE) of A. absinthium was prepared by modifying the method described by Tariq et al (Reference Tariq, Chishti, Ahmad and Shawl2009). Two hundred grams of pulverised plant powder was macerated in 1000 mL of 95% ethanol at room temperature for 16 hours. The resulting mixture was filtered through a non-absorbent cotton wool filter to remove coarse particles, and this process was repeated three times to increase extraction efficiency. The solvent (ethanol) in the collected filtrate was removed under low pressure in a rotary evaporator at 50 °C. The resulting concentrated extract was transferred to airtight sterile glass bottles and stored at +4 °C until in vivo applications.
Trial plan and treatment protocols
To prevent cross-contamination between groups during the study, the sheep groups used in the study were housed in physically isolated pens. All groups were fed a standard basal ration, and the treatment and control protocols applied are outlined below:
Group I (CEE): A. absinthium CEE was administered orally in a single dose of 1 g/kg (live weight) by mixing it into the morning ration on the first day of the study (Tariq et al Reference Tariq, Chishti, Ahmad and Shawl2009).
Group II (albendazole – positive control): Animals in the positive control group received a single oral dose of 5 mg/kg (live weight) of commercial albendazole.
Group III (negative control): Animals were fed only the standard ration without any anthelmintic treatment or herbal supplement.
All groups were clinically and parasitologically monitored for 15 days after treatment to evaluate efficacy.
Laboratory procedure and faecal egg count (FEC)
To determine changes in GIN egg counts, faecal samples were collected in the morning directly from the rectum of each animal in the treatment and control groups on day −7 (before treatment), on the day treatment began (day 0), and on days 7 and 15 post-treatment (PT). The samples were analysed using a modified McMaster technique integrated with the Visser filter system (Van Schalkwyk et al. Reference van Schalkwyk, Schröder, Malan and van Wyk1995). The method was applied as follows: 4 g of faecal sample was placed in a three-stage nested sieve system with pore sizes of 110 μm (top), 70 μm (middle), and 25 μm (bottom), respectively. The faecal material was washed and filtered under medium-pressure water flow, ensuring that the nematode eggs were retained in the bottom (25 μm) sieve. After filtration, the suspension remaining on the bottom sieve was transferred to a calibrated container. To create a flotation solution, sufficient sucrose was added to the suspension to achieve saturation, and the total volume was adjusted to 60 mL with distilled water. Samples taken from the prepared homogeneous mixture were transferred to a three-compartment McMaster slide and examined under a microscope. The detection limit (sensitivity) of this method was calculated as 25 EPG (eggs per gram of faeces).
Calculation of treatment efficacy (FECR)
The anthelmintic efficacies of A. absinthium CEE used in the trial and albendazole, selected as the positive control, were calculated based on the percentage reduction in faecal egg count (FECR). The calculation was performed using the Henderson–Tilton formula in accordance with VICH guidelines, which accounts for both pre- and post-treatment egg counts in both treated and control groups, as follows:
where FECR: Faecal egg count reduction;
T1: Mean EPG of faeces in the treated groups (Artemisia absinthium CEE or albendazole) prior to treatment (day 0);
T2: Mean EPG of faeces in the treated groups after treatment (day 7 or 15);
C1: Mean EPG of faeces in the untreated negative control group prior to treatment (day 0); and
C2: Mean EPG of faeces in the untreated negative control group after treatment (day 7 or 15).
When interpreting the results, the standard efficacy threshold values determined by Coles et al (Reference Coles, Bauer, Borgsteede, Geerts, Klei, Taylor and Waller1992) were taken into account for the positive control group (albendazole). Conversely, for the A. absinthium CEE group, the reduction rate was evaluated as ‘anthelmintic potential’ data, reflecting the plant extract’s capacity to mitigate the parasite load rather than establishing commercial resistance profiles.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of the data was performed using R (v4.3.1) software (R Core Team 2023) and the rstatix (Kassambara Reference Kassambara2023b), tidyverse (Wickham et al Reference Wickham, Averick, Bryan, Chang, McGowan, François, Grolemund, Hayes, Henry, Hester, Kuhn, Pedersen, Miller, Bache, Müller, Cook, Ritchie, Sutter, Strab and Yutani2019), and ggpubr (Kassambara Reference Kassambara2023a) packages. Descriptive statistics are expressed as mean ± standard error (SE). A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was applied to determine differences between groups (untreated, albendazole, and CEE) and time points (−7, 0, 7, and 15 days), as well as group-time interactions. Following the assessment of assumptions, group differences by day were analysed using a Bonferroni-corrected post hoc pairwise t test for main effects found to be significant. A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant in all analyses. Treatment efficacy was calculated as the percentage reduction in EPG (number of eggs per gram of faeces) values on days 0, 7, and 15 (VICH 2021).
Results
In naturally infected sheep with GIN, the anthelmintic efficacy of the CEE of A. absinthium and albendazole, selected as the positive control, was prospectively and comparatively evaluated. When faecal egg counts on days 7 and 15 post-treatment (PT) were analysed for the treatment groups (CEE and albendazole), a statistically significant reduction was observed in all experimental groups compared to the negative control group (p < 0.005; Table 1). In the evaluation of anthelmintic efficacy, the reduction rates in faecal egg counts (FECR%) on days 7 and 15 post-treatment were calculated using the Henderson–Tilton formula in accordance with VICH guidelines. According to the findings obtained, 100% anthelmintic efficacy was observed on both days 7 and 15 in the albendazole group. In the CEE group, an increase in anthelmintic efficacy over time was determined; the FECR, which was 66.79% on day 7, reached 76.77% on day 15. In the group treated with albendazole, which was evaluated as a positive control, no GIN eggs were detected in faecal samples from treatment day 7 onwards (complete cure); in the group treated with CEE, examinations using the McMaster method showed that the parasite load was significantly suppressed, but EPG persisted at different levels. The high efficacy of the CEE against GIN infections in sheep (p < 0.001) was associated with the higher solubility capacity of the plant’s anthelmintic active components in organic solvents. As a result of clinical observations, no local irritation, systemic toxicity, or adverse effects related to the extracts administered to the animals in the experimental groups were detected during the study period and the follow-up period after treatment. All animals included in the experiment remained clinically stable throughout the study protocol; clinically significant improvements were observed in stool consistency, appetite, and overall condition (body condition score) at the end of the treatment process, particularly in the CEE and albendazole groups. These findings support the potential of A. absinthium CEE as a reliable and effective herbal alternative for controlling GIN infections.
Comparison of average fecal egg counts (EPG) and percentage reduction (FECR %) in sheep treated with Artemisia absinthium CEE with positive (albendazole) and negative control groups
Table 1. Long description
The table consists of seven columns and three main data rows. The columns are Group, Dose in mg per kg b w, Pre-treatment Day minus 7, Pre-treatment Day 0, Post-treatment Day 7, Post-treatment Day 15, and P-value.
* Artemisia absinthium C E E group at 1 g dose: Pre-treatment counts were 1187.5 plus or minus 38.13 on Day minus 7 and 1129.17 plus or minus 25.54 on Day 0. Post-treatment counts dropped to 375 plus or minus 8.01 with 66.79 percent reduction on Day 7, and 262.5 plus or minus 7.21 with 76.77 percent reduction on Day 15. P is less than 0.001.
* Albendazole (Positive Control) at 5 mg dose: Pre-treatment counts were 1166.67 plus or minus 40.14 on Day minus 7 and 1116.67 plus or minus 33.33 on Day 0. Post-treatment counts dropped to 0.0 plus or minus 0.00 with 100.0 percent reduction on both Day 7 and Day 15. P is less than 0.0001.
* Untreated (Negative Control) with no dose: Pre-treatment counts were 1158.33 plus or minus 45.49 on Day minus 7 and 1166.67 plus or minus 42.16 on Day 0. Post-treatment counts remained high at 1166.68 plus or minus 33.54 on Day 7 and 1167.53 plus or minus 40.82 on Day 15. P is greater than 0.05.
Figures in parenthesis indicate mean egg count percent reduction (FECR %); SE, standard error of mean; bw, body weight. a The values represent the rows.
The EPG counts and treatment efficacy obtained during the study are presented in detail in Figure 1. At the start of the experiment (days −7 and 0), a homogeneous distribution was observed among the groups, and no statistically significant difference was detected (p > 0.05). On day 7 post-treatment, while the albendazole group completely halted GIN egg shedding (100%), the CEE group reduced the EPG value from 1129.17 ± 25.54 on day 0 to 375.00 ± 8.01, demonstrating a 66.79% decrease by day 7 (Figure 1). By the final day of the experiment (day 15), the decline in GIN egg count in the CEE group continued, reaching an EPG value of 262.50 ± 7.21, achieving a total treatment efficacy of 76.77%. Statistical analyses (repeated-measures ANOVA) indicated that both the group and time interactions were highly significant (p < 0.001). In the negative control group (untreated), no significant decrease in egg count was recorded throughout the process; on the contrary, a slight increase of 1.42% was observed. No statistically significant difference was detected between the EPG values determined on different days of the study in the untreated group (p > 0.05).
Anthelmintic efficacy of A. absinthium CEE and Albendazole against gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) eggs in naturally infected Awassi sheep.
Data points represent Mean ± Standard Error (n=6 per group). **** indicates significant difference from the untreated control group (p<0.0001).
Figure 1. Long description
The X-axis is labeled Observation Days with intervals at -7, 0, 7, and 15. The Y-axis is labeled Eggs Per Gram (E P G) ranging from 0 to over 1000.
Three treatment groups are plotted:
* Negative control (Untreated) in grey: Maintains a stable, high E P G between 1100 and 1200 throughout the 15 days. Four asterisks appear above this line at days 7 and 15 to indicate statistical significance compared to the other groups.
* Artemisia absinthium C E E in red: Starts near 1100 E P G at day 0, then shows a sharp linear decrease to approximately 400 E P G by day 7, continuing down to roughly 250 E P G by day 15.
* Positive control (Albendazole) in blue: Starts near 1200 E P G at day 0, then drops precipitously to 0 E P G by day 7 and remains at 0 through day 15.
Individual data points are shown as semi-transparent dots around the mean markers, which include vertical error bars representing standard error.
Discussion
GIN infections are endemic in sheep and cause serious economic losses in the livestock sector (Doğanay Reference Doğanay1993; Güralp Reference Güralp1981). The resistance developed against synthetic anthelmintics commonly used against these parasites (Bremner et al Reference Bremner, Berrie and Hotson1983; Kieran Reference Kieran1994) has necessitated the development of alternative control strategies. In their review examining plants used for GIN control in ruminants, Githiori et al (Reference Githiori, Athanasiadou and Thamsborg2006) listed 32 different plant species, 13 of which are directly effective against the Trichostrongylidae family; however, they reported that in most cases, the efficacy of these plants was lower than that of their chemical counterparts. In this context, research on tannin-containing plants and phytochemical extracts with prominent anthelmintic properties has gained importance (Ketzis et al Reference Ketzis, Vercruysse, Stromberg, Larsen, Athanasiadou and Houdijk2006).
This study was conducted to evaluate the in vivo anthelmintic efficacy and clinical safety of the CEE of A. absinthium in naturally infected sheep. The data obtained demonstrated that the CEE of A. absinthium produced a significant time- and dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the fecundity of nematodes belonging to the Trichostrongylidae family. The reduction rate in the faecal egg count (EPG) detected on day 15 post-treatment was recorded as 76.77% in the CEE group. Compared to the 100% cure rate provided by albendazole, the positive-control group, the performance demonstrated by CEE highlights the potential for plant-based alternatives in parasite control strategies.
In the literature, it has been reported that lambs fed diets containing A. absinthium had significantly lower parasite egg loads (Seaman Reference Seaman1982); this effect is thought to result from sesquiterpene lactones in the plant suppressing egg formation. Furthermore, it has been reported that A. absinthium extracts inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, negatively affecting the motility and viability of nematodes (Korayem et al Reference Korayem, Hasabo and Ameen1993).
The efficacy levels obtained in our study show a high degree of similarity with the findings reported by Tariq et al (Reference Tariq, Chishti, Ahmad and Shawl2009). The aforementioned study reported that CEE at a dose of 1.0 g/kg resulted in an 82.85% reduction in eggs (FECR), and our result of 76.77% at a dose of 1.0 g/kg close agreement with these data. In both studies, the anthelmintic effect of CEE can be attributed to the higher concentration of active components in ethanol and the faster absorption of these components through the parasite cuticle (transcuticular absorption) (Tariq et al Reference Tariq, Chishti, Ahmad and Shawl2009). Furthermore, the fact that 90.46% efficacy was achieved at a dose of 2.0 g/kg in the same study demonstrates the wide therapeutic window of A. absinthium and its potential for increased efficacy with increasing doses.
Comparisons with other Artemisia species more clearly demonstrate the superiority of A. absinthium. For example, in a study by Iqbal et al (Reference Iqbal, Lateef, Ashraf and Jabbar2004), the crude aqueous extract (CAE) form of Artemisia brevifolia was only able to achieve a 67.2% reduction in GIN infections in sheep at a high dose of 3 g/kg using the FECR test. In our study, the CEE form of A. absinthium achieved 76.77% anthelmintic efficacy even at a dose of 1 g/kg. Although none of the doses tested in the A. brevifolia study were comparable to synthetic drugs (levamisole, 99.2%), the fact that the CEE group in our study approached a statistically similar level of efficacy to albendazole suggests that the A. absinthium plant has a higher affinity for GIN species in terms of phytochemistry.
However, in Peru, Flores-Prado et al (Reference Flores-Prado, Godoy-Padilla, Limaymanta-Zavala, Cruz-Luis and Zárate-Rendón2025) reported that, despite the in vitro anthelmintic success of A. absinthium, it did not show a significant effect under in vivo conditions (at a dose of 600 mg/kg) in a study conducted on Creole goats. This failure is thought to stem from dosages below the 1000 mg/kg used in our study or from the resistance profile developed by parasite strains in the relevant region. Furthermore, the ecological conditions of the region where the plant was collected and differences in extraction methods may also have played a role in these contrasting results.
In the present study, the 100% efficacy observed in the albendazole group serves as a critical historical indicator that GIN populations in the region had not yet developed significant resistance to benzimidazole-class drugs during the study period. Given the increasing global trend of anthelmintic resistance, these findings provide an indispensable baseline dataset for monitoring the development of resistance in Awassi sheep. In a region like Şanlıurfa, which is the heart of small ruminant breeding, the fact that this is the first in vivo study in this field (particularly on the Awassi breed) indicates that the data are ‘foundational’ rather than ‘historical’. The data obtained in this study provide a critical baseline dataset for understanding long-term trends in parasite load and drug resistance in Awassi sheep in the Şanlıurfa region. The lack of fundamental change in livestock practices in the region since the study was conducted and the continued dependence on synthetic anthelmintics ensure that the 100% albendazole efficacy (positive control) and the potential of plant extracts identified at that time remain a reference point for current discussions on resistance development.
Conclusion
Based on the data obtained in this study, it was determined that CEE of Artemisia absinthium exhibits high anthelmintic activity against GIN infections in sheep under in vivo conditions at a dose of 1.0 g/kg. In particular, the 76.77% reduction in egg production in faeces (EPG) achieved by CEE at a dose of 1.0 g/kg proves that the plant could be a strategic biotherapeutic alternative to synthetic anthelmintics. The findings of this study suggest that A. absinthium extracts can be used not only as a therapeutic intervention but also as a protective strategy. The inclusion of A. absinthium in integrated parasite management systems not only reduces reliance on synthetic anthelmintics but also offers the dual benefit of continuously suppressing the environmental larval population. These fundamental findings remain highly relevant for contemporary and sustainable livestock farming models, particularly organic farming, where residue-free interventions are prioritised. Particularly in small ruminant husbandry, adding low amounts of A. absinthium to rations (concentrated feeds) during periods of intense parasite pressure is predicted to be a sustainable supportive method for controlling GIN infections and maintaining herd health. Such an application could both reduce the frequency of synthetic drug use and minimise pasture infestation by continuously suppressing parasite egg shedding. However, to validate the true potential of A. absinthium in parasite control programmes, further research is needed to determine the variable dose–response kinetics against different parasite stages (larvicidal effect) and specific nematode species. In this context, the standardisation of the plant’s active components is critical for the development of residue-free and sustainable new preparations in veterinary pharmacology.
In conclusion, our findings confirm that A. absinthium CEE is a reliable and highly effective biotherapeutic option for controlling GIN infections in sheep. Standing out as a promising alternative in integrated parasite management, this plant-based approach offers a dual benefit: it significantly reduces the chemical burden on animal products while providing a cost-effective solution for farmers. Most importantly, it represents a sustainable frontier in the fight against anthelmintic resistance, ensuring long-term health and productivity in livestock systems. To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first investigation in Türkiye evaluating the anthelmintic efficacy of A. absinthium CEE in Awassi breed sheep naturally infected with GIN, providing the first regional efficacy data from Şanlıurfa.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to dedicate this work to the memory of Prof. Dr. Mehtapgul ALTAS ATIG, who passed away before the preparation of this article. Her invaluable contributions to the field of veterinary parasitology and her guidance throughout this research will always be remembered.
Financial Support
We would like to thank the Scientific Research Projects Unit of Harran University (11113-11) for financially supporting this study.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical approval
This study was conducted with permission and approval granted by Harran University’s Local Animal Experiments Ethics Committee under decision number 11/01. All experimental procedures were conducted in accordance with animal welfare laws and international ethical standards regarding the use of animals in experiments.
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