Cross-cultural applicability of dietary assessment instruments

In this context, the nutritional assessment instruments developed for the general population may not represent the full range and complexity of the Indian migrant diet in New Zealand. Previous New Zealand work suggests that composite dishes, pulse-based dishes and culturally specific whole-grain products may be under-recorded in generic tools^{(Reference Parackal6,Reference Parackal, Smith and Parnell7)} . This can result in an underestimation of diet quality and in the inability to compare migrant diets with national recommendations.

Meaningful improvements in the cultural validity of dietary assessment are needed, however, because accurate research is only one-half of why this is important; dietary guidance must also be relevant and realistic for Indian populations. Lessons from South Asian co-design projects might provide valuable guidance in this regard^{(Reference Parackal, Saeed Akhtar and Yadav12,Reference Parackal, Yadav Boyina and Brown13)} , particularly in understanding how broader food system factors shape dietary behaviour.

Facilitators and barriers across the food system

Dietary behaviour does not occur in isolation; it is influenced by larger ecosystem elements, including interpersonal, organisational, community and environmental factors^{(Reference McLeroy, Bibeau and Steckler14)}. Migrant populations’ diets are affected by a variety of structural, environmental and cultural factors that can impede access to healthy food^{(Reference Berggreen-Clausen, Hseing Pha and Mölsted Alvesson8,Reference Varre, Dustin and Van Vliet9)} . The following represent some of the significant impediments located at various levels of the food system that may affect the dietary behaviours of Indian migrant women in Auckland, New Zealand:

• • Affordability

Food-price inflation and increasing prices for nutrient-rich foods, especially dairy, have the potential to push households toward cheaper discretionary items⁽¹⁵⁾. National evaluations have demonstrated that sweetened or ultra-processed food products are now relatively cheaper than fresh produce^{(Reference Vatsa and Renwick16)}. Market structure characteristics, such as the effects of supermarket duopoly, also affect affordability^(15,17) .

• • Food environments

Availability of culturally specific foods within Auckland also varies from neighbourhood to neighbourhood, and in some cases, residents may need to seek out food at speciality ethnic outlets⁽¹⁸⁾.

• • Navigation and trust

Asian immigrants frequently report difficulties accessing primary care, such as poor language assistance and an unfamiliar health system^{(Reference Bhatia, Qi and Charania19)}. These obstacles limit the availability of preventive nutritional counselling.

• • Social and cultural context

Because of cross-cultural expectations, stereotypical roles and shameful feelings may affect help-seeking and responses to dietary information among Indian females^{(Reference Philip, Kemp and Taylor3)}. These combined multilevel effects indicate that intervention strategies aimed at modifying diet must move beyond individual-level knowledge to tackle broader structural and environmental determinants.

Why Auckland-specific evidence is required

Despite Indians representing one of the largest migrant populations in Auckland⁽²⁾ and growing recognition of the food system barriers and facilitators influencing the dietary behaviour of migrants, important evidence gaps remain regarding Indian migrant women. Pregnancy-based studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of dietary compliance among women resident in New Zealand^{(Reference Lawrence, Wall and Bloomfield20,Reference Morton, Grant and Wall21)} . However, limited research has examined the dietary behaviours and the contextual drivers shaping these behaviours among Indian migrant women who became the largest Asian migrant ethnic female group in New Zealand since 2023 (157 000 females)⁽¹⁾. Stats NZ Tatauranga Aotearoa further estimates that the Indian migrant female population will increase to 368 600 by 2048⁽¹⁾.

This gap hinders the design of nutrition interventions for local regions. Evidence from South Asian health-promotion and co-design approaches suggests that culturally adapted^{(Reference Parackal6,Reference Parackal, Smith and Parnell7)} strategies hold promise but rely upon accurate population-specific data.

An ambitious research and action agenda

To improve the effectiveness of nutrition policies and practices for migrant populations, such as Indian migrants in Auckland, it is important to understand how the dietary behaviours of Indian women are shaped within the migrant context. Once this has been accomplished, a coordinated research and action plan can be developed to focus efforts on supporting cultural identity, local diets, social/physical determinants of health and community-based food system solutions that make diets consistent with public health recommendations more accessible. Key areas for consideration include the following:

1. 1. Enhancing the cultural relevance of diet assessments: To effectively assess, tools must also be designed to represent the practices in Indian food habits, such as mixed dishes, pulse-based staples, culinary methods used and whole-grain diversities.

2. 2. Developing Auckland-specific dietary profiles: Indian women’s dietary behaviours in the context of the city, demography and food-environment are involved and require focused research.

3. 3. Considering multilevel determinants: Future work should consider affordability, access, language and navigation barriers, as well as food-environment constraints.

4. 4. Supporting culturally responsive nutrition services: There may be potential benefits to interpreter support, culturally relevant examples and partnerships with the community to help build trust and access.

5. 5. Collaborative food system solutions: Involvement of supermarkets, ethnic retailers, local health agencies and community partners can help enhance affordability and access to guideline-aligned foods.