Euergetism has within the last decades become a central field of research for historians interested in the development of Greek city-states. Following the divergent studies of P. Gauthier (Les cités grecques et leurs bienfaiteurs [1985]) and F. Quaß (Honoratiorenschicht [1993]), which both primarily dealt with the groundbreaking monograph of P. Veyne (Le pain et le cirque [1976]), recent research has mainly focused on the Hellenistic and Imperial periods. By contrast, some scholars, amongst them Domingo Gygax, co-editor of the volume under review, have argued to widen the focus to other periods in the history of the Greek polis and thereby to interpret the phenomena of benefactions and of euergetism in the wider context of gift-giving as a special form of reciprocal relationships. As a complement to his studies on the origins of Greek euergetism, recently published as a monograph (Benefaction and Rewards [2016]), Domingo Gygax together with Zuiderhoek in 2015 organised a workshop on the Origins and Development of the Public Gift in the Greek Cities from the Homeric World to Late Antiquity, the outcomes of which are published in the volume under review.

The book, as stated by the editors, for the first time aims to take ‘a truly long durée perspective’ (p. 7) on the phenomenon of public gift-giving in the Greek world and therefore assembles twelve articles organised in chronological order and written by experts on particular questions concerning euergetism and gift-exchange from the Archaic period to the late antique empire. The articles are framed by a short introduction and a useful conclusion both written by the editors, who also each contribute thematic studies to the volume. The introduction mainly gives an overview of the research on the phenomena of public generosity and gift-giving from the nineteenth century onwards as well as on the more recent studies on euergetism in particular and thereby aims to locate the volume within the fields of research on the subjects. The conclusion successfully solves the general problems collective volumes taking a long durée perspective often face by discussing the outcomes of the articles within the general questions posed at the beginning of the volume and thereby taking into account the evolution of public generosity and gift exchange over the centuries. Within the discussion, the editors point out the controversies that some of the articles might cause to stimulate further research. A general index as well as an index locorum make the book even more accessible to readers.

Closely examining the forms of gift-giving within Homeric society, H. van Wees shows that powerful aristocrats, although generally well known for their generosity, surprisingly mainly focused on their peer group and did not normally bestow material benefactions on their subjects. In contrast, they generally had to fulfil immaterial obligations by serving the community, for example as soldiers or as judges. To compensate them for these services, they received material gifts from the community. Only when their influence slightly declined at the end of the Archaic period did powerful aristocrats try to reinforce their status by financial services to the community. Using the example of late Archaic Athens, B. Wagner-Hasel examines the relationship of dues and benefactions under the tyrannic rule of the Pisistratids. Although the euergetic ‘services’ (p. 59) of the tyrants to the community as well as the dues paid by the people show links to Homeric traditions, there are also important differences to be observed: most forms of public gift-giving were henceforth centred around the areas of ritual and cult. Instead of a balanced reciprocal gift-exchange between tyrant and people, most services were delivered to the benefit of the gods within their sanctuaries, where the circulation of gifts came to an end.

Starting the section on the classical period, Domingo Gygax analyses the evolution of civic euergetism in classical Athens. While the radical democracy especially of the fifth century bce was very reluctant in honouring its citizens, the developments of the late fourth century bce – the so-called ‘liturgization of Athenian offices’ (p. 91) – prefigured the Hellenistic age. The financial support to the city provided by wealthy citizens performing their liturgies marked an intermediate step in the development of the system of reciprocal gift exchange between individuals and the polis and should therefore – according to Domingo Gygax – be recognised as a phase of ‘eurergetization’ (p. 91). In contrast to previous views, therefore, it is argued that the Hellenistic period did not mark a radical change. By taking a closer look at small-scale benefactions at the level of the demes in classical Athens, R. Osborne enriches this general picture with further aspects and thereby also stresses the sociological aspects of the phenomenon. As the demes often had problems in recruiting volunteers for their offices, they were much readier – and also much earlier – to grant honours for public services.

Features of euergetism that are sometimes neglected or misrecognised are also an important subject in the section on Hellenistic benefactors. By a close examination of Hellenistic endowments S. von Reden points out the important role the Hellenistic city-states played within this process and stresses the visibility of benefactions as a key element of euergetism in the Hellenistic period. In the long run the polis normally kept control of the endowments making the benefactions in some way ‘a democratically legitimized institution’ (p. 131). The article makes an interesting contribution to the ongoing debates on the scale of democracy within Hellenistic city-states and emphasises the role that inscriptions played within this process (on this aspect see now F.R. Forster, Die Polis im Wandel [2018]). With a special focus on the Seleucid kings R. Strootman analyses the relationships between the Greek city-states and the Hellenistic monarchies. Partly questioning general assumptions on the Hellenistic empires, the monarchies are depicted as weak buildings struggling for the support of the cities, who subsequently acted out of a strong position and established egalitarian relationships with the kings based on philia and xenia. Royal benefactions mostly remained immaterial by granting protection or autonomy and otherwise – as in the Archaic period – mainly focused on sanctuaries. The honours bestowed upon the kings by the city-states on the other hand often included material gifts like gold crowns and therefore can be seen as a particular form of duties. The case study on the endowments of festivals on Delos by J. Tully seems to confirm the image depicted by R. Strootman. The analysis shows the Hellenistic kings alongside local donors competing against each other through the bestowment of festivals. On the other hand, royal endowments henceforth cannot be seen as indicators of political hegemony on the island.

For the Greek cities living under imperial rule as part of the Roman empire, the continuities with the late Hellenistic period have often been rightly stressed. Besides the undeniable similarities, C. Noreña in his article points out changes in the reciprocal system of gift-giving caused by the creation of the principate. In contrast to the competing Hellenistic kings, the Roman emperor was routinely honoured by the communities as a ‘model benefactor’ (p. 218). Benefactions provided by the emperors from now on mainly comprised material gifts and gradually disengaged from the direct exchange of gifts and counter-gifts. At the same time, the creation of an imperial role-model affected the relationship between the city-states and their local benefactors. On the contrary, Zuiderhoek in his contribution mainly focuses on local elites and maps out the continuities in the phenomena of euergetism and public giving in general as central elements of polis societies. Nevertheless, in the imperial period one can also observe an expansion in the size as well as in the recipients of public benefactions. Taking into account the poorly developed administration of the Roman empire, euergetism seems to have played an important role in the stability and longevity of Roman rule. By a close analysis of agonistic festivals, O.M. van Nijf addresses a key aspect of public generosity in the post-classical polis. Public events are not only to be seen as ‘an object of euergetism’ but also as ‘a medium through which euergetism evolved’ (p. 243). The festivals therefore fulfilled quite different functions: while the events were normally a welcome opportunity for wealthy individuals to show their generosity and thereby to gain prestige, as mass events they were also the place for people to express approval as well as discontent caused by social tensions. In sum, festivals played a central part in guaranteeing the social cohesion of the city-states and, by making them ‘honorific communities’ (p. 261), defined their social and political relations.

The world of the late antique Byzantine empire at first glance seems very different from earlier periods: rather than by public buildings urban landscapes were now dominated by religious structures such as churches or monasteries. Nevertheless, by a close examination of the ‘Lithomania’ especially of the bishops, who used church funds for the construction of monumental religious buildings, D.F. Caner is able to trace some parallels to earlier forms of public euergetism. Like traditional benefactors, the bishops by their building activity provided necessary amenities to the community. By focusing on the western empire, C.J. Goddard, in line with some recent studies, also challenges the traditional view of a clear opposition of Christianity and euergetism. While other fields of public munificence vanished, churches, on the contrary, seemed to be a welcome place for benefactors to express their generosity. Benefactions should thus be considered as one facet of Christianity, and the decline of euergetism at the end of antiquity is better explained, for Goddard, by the disappearance of cities as civic communities that provided the referential framework for benefactors.

This well-structured and carefully edited volume provides interesting insights into different aspects of euergetism and gift-giving throughout antiquity. The articles deal with a wide range of sometimes admittedly quite particular topics, but nevertheless contribute to the ongoing debates on the impact that the phenomenon of reciprocal gift exchange had on Greek city-states over time. The results are sometimes controversial in a welcome way and challenge traditional views and will stimulate further debates. Although the contributors often rightly point out the undeniable continuities and similarities that can be observed in the practices of gift exchange throughout the centuries, the long durée perspective also reveals the fundamental differences and changes the phenomenon of euergetism underwent in antiquity – but this does not detract from the overall quality of the volume.