Introduction

In the 1970s, Robert Hillenbrand published a series of articles entitled “Saljuq Monuments,” which had a leading role in distinguishing the architecture of the period and paved the way for further studies on Saljuq buildings.Footnote ¹ However, this type of article and similar, particularly from Western scholars, appeared less frequently after Iran's Islamic Revolution in 1357/1979. This study aims to fill this gap, continuing previous research by discussing other Saljuq mosques in Azerbaijan.Footnote ² The first monument of the series is the Masjid-i Jami‘ (Friday mosque) of Urmiya (or Urmia).Footnote ³ The populated and developed city is now the capital of West Azerbaijan Province, in the northwest of Iran. In the literature, the mosque has only been briefly discussed by previous scholars. Thus, through a detailed study, this article aims to describe the monument and its main architectural features, revealing its position in the history of Saljuq mosque architecture.

Wilson was the first to describe the building, providing a drawing of the mosque's plan, sections, and north elevation.Footnote ⁴ Due to two similar passageways, to both the west and east of the dome chamber, Wilson claimed that a vaulted passageway (like a fire temple) runs once around the dome chamber on all four sides. This scheme corresponds with local stories, which claim the mosque was originally a fire temple in the Sasanian time and converted into a mosque in the Islamic period.Footnote ⁵ In Survey of Persian Art, Pope also briefly discusses the mosque; however, he mainly repeats Wilson's material without adding any new information. Pope, like Wilson, states that the wall and piers of the dome chamber are remarkably thick, and there are signs of a corridor surrounding it. These elements strongly suggest the mosque was an ancient fire temple, although the evidence is uncertain.Footnote ⁶ The unusual thickness of the walls may suggest a traditional measure of precaution in this high-risk zone, protecting the structure against earthquakes.

Godard classified the mosque as an isolated pavilion or kiosk-domed mosque similar to those of Yazd, Simnan, etc.Footnote ⁷ He also published a photo of the building's transition zone.Footnote ⁸ Wilber, in his account on the building, wrote that the mosque's dome chamber is generally a Saljuq monument, and its massive construction linked more to the northwest type, such as Qazvin, than the articulated buildings of the Isfahan area. He also briefly described the mosque's Ilkhanid mihrāb (prayer niche) and gave its date of construction.Footnote ⁹ In Robert Hillenbrand's study of the Saljuq dome chambers in the northwest of Iran, he grouped the building with five other mosques with similar architectural characteristics: Ḥiydariya of Qazvin and the Friday mosques of Qazvin, Qirva,Footnote ¹⁰ Sujas, and Marand, as the “Qazvin school of Saljuq architecture.”Footnote ¹¹

Historic setting

The city of Urmiya (Urmia), 37° 32’ 16.52 ʺ N, 45° 03´ 07.59ʺ E, is an ancient, multi-ethnic city, the largest in the province, and is located 17 kilometers west of Lake Urmiya, on a large fertile plain. The city's history goes back to 2000 B.C.E and the remains of the ancient settlement are scattered across the plain, which some may know as the prehistoric Kingdom of Urārtu. The area is named Parāsu, and its inhabitants immigrated south in 815 B.C.E.Footnote ¹² The majority of Iranian and Arab geographers mention that Zoroaster, the spiritual founder of the Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism, was born in the Urmiya area.Footnote ¹³

Baladhuarī, in Futūḥ al-Buldān (third/ninth century), wrote of the ancient city and mentioned its conquer by Muslims in 20–22/640–42 and the Arabs who then built several castles there.Footnote ¹⁴ In the third/ninth century, Ṣādaqa b. Ali Rawadi rebelled against the caliphate's army and conquered the city. He chose the city of Urmiya as the center of government and ordered the construction of strong fortification around the city and a deep ditch surrounding the ramparts. By 330/941, Marzubān b. Muhammad controlled the whole of Azerbaijan, including Urmiya.Footnote ¹⁵

Iṣṭakhrī, in al-Masal va al-Mamālik (c. 340/950), described the city as large, prosperous, located next to a sea, and with several promenades.Footnote ¹⁶ Ibn Ḥuqal, in Ṣurat al-Arz (367/977), wrote that Urmiya was the largest town (in the Azerbaijan area) after Maragha. The city is pleasant and has grapevines and waters flowing in the city and its villages. Commerce is proceeding in the city, and it has plentiful corns.Footnote ¹⁷ The anonymous writer of Hudu al ‘Alam min al Mashrigh ilā Maghrib (372/982) mentioned that the city was large, developed, and prosperous.Footnote ¹⁸ Muqaddasī, in Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm (375/985), described the town as attractive and populous and indicated the mosque (masjid) was in the clothmakers’ market (bazaar). The town also had a stronghold and a stream.Footnote ¹⁹

Urmiya was a flourishing and pleasant city by the end of the sixth/twelfth century. Yāqūt Hamawī, who visited in 617/1220–21, referred to it in M‘ujam al-Buldān as a prosperous, fruitful place with abundant orchards, fruits, and water.Footnote ²⁰ During the Mongol invasion, like other parts of the region, the city was out of danger. Indeed, the early Mongol rulers selected the Azerbaijan area as their governing center in the seventh/thirteenth century because of its natural advantages, which were compatible with the Mongols’ nomadic lifestyle. Thus, the cities of the region, including Urmiya, received attention during the era.

All sources confirm that Urmiya was a prosperous and important city in the medieval period. As in similar contemporary cities, it was standard to have a Friday mosque beside the bazaar. It is thus possible that a hypostyle mosque sat originally on the same site as the Urmiya Jami‘, and a domed structure was added later.

Location and description

The Masjid-i Jami‘, 37° 33′ 03.38ʺ N, 45° 04′ 33. 33ʺ E, is located in the city's old, historic core, to the southwest of Imām Khumeīnī (previously Sipa) Square, in the bazaar district. The mosque is free on all sides except to the west, which is where the city's traditional bazaar is located. Through its courtyards, the mosque is connected to a part of the bazaar, locally known as rāsta-i sangtarāshān (stonemason row). The area surrounding the mosque is congested due to its commercial function.

The mosque is comprised of a central, open courtyard surrounded by several structures to the south, east, and west, and an enclosing wall to the north (Fig. 1). Apart from the south side of the courtyard, where the old part of the mosque sits, the other sides suffered major destruction and underwent change in the twentieth century (see below). This paper mainly focuses on the old part, including the dome chamber and the flanking buildings.

Figure 1.

General plan of the mosque

The dome chamber (gunbad khāna) is approximately square and measures 10.74 m x 10.77 m. The space is enclosed by two arched openings, equal in size, on all sides except the qibla side (Fig. 2). This form of plan can be seen in other Saljuq dome chambers of the northwest, such as the Friday Mosque of Marand (485/1092) and Sujas (third quarter of the sixth/twelfth century).Footnote ²¹ Each opening is inside a rectangular frame. Over each doorway is a four-centered, pointed arch, which rests on two short, round engaged columns in plaster. Each of the short columns sits on an inset base, which is at a height of 1.20 m from the ground floor. From this level, a Qur'anic inscription band in Thuluth, 30 cm wide, surrounds the rectangle entrance frame. Due to the similar inscription styles, these adjoining bands seem to be dated to the Qajar period, possibly to the time of its renovation, around 1250/1834 (see below).

Figure 2.

Dome chamber, southeast view

The dome chamber is flanked by two unequal shabistāns of stone square piers. Their width is equal to that of the dome chamber and they create a linear structure necessary to facilitating parallel rows during congregational prayer. The west wing is ten bays in length and three bays in depth (45.69 m x 15.87 m). However, the eastern one has only one bay in length and three bays in depth (3.37 m x 14.07 m). The west shabistān, locally known as Chihil Sutūn (meaning 40 piers), is covered with a series of hemispherical domes.Footnote ²² The walls and piers of the other shabistāns are of stone; however, they are both vaulted by baked brick (Fig. 3). Some pillars of the shabistān lean slightly. It is possible that earthquakes damaged the shabistān in the past. The main entrance to the building is now to the west, through the adjacent shabistān.

Figure 3.

View of western pillared shabistān

A barrel-vaulted corridor, two meters wide, is on the west and east exterior sides of the dome chamber. The corridor is flanked on each side by the dome chamber and adjacent shabistān. Thus, this dome chamber was likely added or constructed within part of an earlier pillared shabistān, the original feature of which is unclear.

The National Organization inside the west shabistan for Protecting Ancient Monuments in Iran (NOPAM) conducted an archaeological investigation in 1356/1977. This excavation revealed architectural remains (including partitions), stone pier bases, and cultural materials (e.g., copper coins, glass, and fragments of pottery) dating from the Saljuq to Qajar periods. This discovery shows that the pillared shabistān underwent various alterations.Footnote ²³ However, this excavation did not yield a definitive date for the shabistān's original construction. The recent excavation of the dome chamber's floor by the Iranian Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts (IMCTH) in 1397/2018, revealed the remains of a stone wall, possibly dating to the pre-Islamic period, about three meters under the dome chamber's existing floor, suggesting there may not have originally been a pillared shabistān in this place.Footnote ²⁴

The building's exterior height, from the apex of the dome to the ground level, is 19.66 m and its inner height is 18.30 m, so the dome chamber's internal ratio of width to height is about 1:1.72. This conservative ratio suggests the mosque builder aimed to construct a durable structure, able to withstand natural hazards such as earthquakes. A rectangular window, measuring 1.69 m x 1.16 m and topped by a pointed trefoil arch, is positioned at the transition zone on each side of the building. Two windows, each measuring 1.50 m x 1.11 m, sit below the transition zone on every side of the dome chamber except the mihrāb side. A Qur'anic inscription band in Thuluth, similar to that running around the below opening frames, stretches around each window. Likely, these bands date to the Qajar period.

A rectangular frame with a shouldered arch over it can be seen around each window on all sides of the dome chamber (Fig. 4). The two windows are covered by the uppermost decorative panel of the mihrāb. The exterior façade of these windows on the south side of the dome chamber shows they were later blocked. It seems the two original windows over this wall were covered by the Ilkhanind mihrāb, suggesting the mihrāb was added to the earlier structure, which possibly dates to the Saljuq period.

Figure 4.

Dome chamber, northeast view

The lower part of the dome chamber's exterior façade is built with stone masonry set in plaster from the ground level to the height of 4.40 m (Fig. 5). This suggests that a rough material such as stone was potentially needed to carry the low, solid masonry dome. It is worth mentioning that applying the stone on the lower level of the dome chamber was not standard in other Saljuq dome chambers in Iran. This method was customary only in the Saljuq mausolea of Azerbaijan, such as Sia Gunbad (580/1184) in Urmiya and Gunbad-i Surkh (542/1148), Gunbad Mudavar (563/1167–68), and Gunbad Kabūd (593/1196–97) in Maragha.Footnote ²⁵ This construction technique was a local tradition in the Azerbaijan region.

Figure 5.

Dome chamber, north façade

The building is covered with a double-shell dome, a type in which the inner and outer shells are constructed alongside each other from the beginning; a tiny space exists between the outer and inner shells (Fig. 6).Footnote ²⁶ In this type, both shells gradually separate from each other, with each finally working as an independent single shell. The closest parallel is the Friday Mosque of Ardistan (553–55/1158–60).Footnote ²⁷ The dome's exterior surface was repaired on the order of Shuja‘al-Dūla Afshār, the city governor, in 1287/1870–71.Footnote ²⁸ At this time, the governor commissioned Ustad ‘Abdul‘āli Mi‘mār (‘Abdul‘āli the master of architecture) to cover the dome with glazed tiles; however, these tiles gradually detached from the dome surface due to poor installation. A photograph taken by ‘Alī Khān Vālī, the governor of Urmiya, around 1300/1883 and another dated 1305/1888 from the Gulistān Palace library both show the disturbing situation on the dome's outer surface.Footnote ²⁹ By 1307/1929, the dome was covered with new glazed tiles, which has also been mentioned by Wilson.Footnote ³⁰ Owing to the appearance of dampness on the interior surface of the dome's inner shell, its exterior surface was covered with metal panels in the 1330s/1950s.Footnote ³¹ Finally, the metal cover was removed to revive its original form. After conducting necessary repairs, the dome's outer shell was roofed with the existing baked bricks in 1351/1971–72.Footnote ³² The dome's profile is a low-pointed arch with a squat stilt supported by fairly massive walls. This combination creates a triple profile, which is appropriate for erecting a durable monument. A similar shape can be seen in other domed square monuments, such as Arsalān-i Jāzib (first half of the fifth/eleventh century) in Sangbast and Davazda Imām (429/1037–38) in Yazd.Footnote ³³

Figure 6.

Dome chamber, 3d section view

The dome of the building is 10.54 m in diameter and rests on a low, 24-sided transitional zone (Fig. 7), which is 3.82 m high. The form of the squinch in the Urmiya mosque differs from the Saljuq tri-lobed squinch of central Iran.Footnote ³⁴ In the latter, 8 rib vaults normally provide 8, 16, and 24-sided bases for transforming a rectangle or square shape into the circular base of the dome.Footnote ³⁵ In this style, a shouldered arch spans the corners within another pointed arch frame.Footnote ³⁶ However, in the Urmiya mosque, each squinch is comprised of a series of niches, which are placed over each other in three tiers. Two intersected rib arches sit on the corner and together create the three-pointed head niches, shouldered triangles in the form, beside each other. The middle one is divided into three parts with a smaller pointed niche below the middle part, spanning the corner. The second tier is comprised of two smaller, projecting pointed head niches seated over the first tier. This united combination encircles the dome and creates sufficient structural safety. A flat window frame, situated at the same height as the two tiers, fills the space between each squinch. Finally, the encircling tier is comprised of twenty-four pointed head niches placed on the top, creating a sixteen-sided base for erecting the dome (Fig. 8). In contrast to the high-pointed arch squinch in central Iran, the style of Urmiya was designed to decrease the height of the dome's transition zone to protect it against earthquakes. A similar method of construction can be seen in the Masjid-i Jami‘ of Marand (second half of the fifth/eleventh century), Gunbad-i Surkh in Maragha (542/1142), the ‘Ala'adīn Mosque in Qūniya (632–33/1235), Gök Madrasa in Sivas (669–70/1271), and Shajar al-Dūrr mausoleum in Cairo (648/1250).Footnote ³⁷

Figure 7.

Dome chamber, Transition zone over the mihrāb

Figure 8.

Dome chamber, 3D model of the construction

Similar to the above Saljuq mosques in northwest Iran, there is no trace of a minaret adjacent to the Urmiya Jami‘. Contrary to central lands, it seems in the northwest, mainly due to the risk of earthquakes, the construction of a minaret was not standard.

In the Zand era (1164–1209/1751–94), a madrasa (theological school) was built around a large garden (the mosque's present courtyard) adjacent to the dome chamber in 1184/1770. It seems the mosque had no dedicated courtyard, and the newly built madrasa was utterly independent of the mosque's linear structure. The two structures were connected through an elaborate portal northwest of the dome chamber (see below). The courtyard façade of the west shabistān, in front of the dome chamber, contained a series of arcades, which were part of the previous madrasa. To provide direct access from the courtyard to the dome chamber, the arcades comprised of five blind niches were removed around 1350/1971. To the east of the courtyard, the cells of Zand Madrasa were replaced by some modern buildings in the 1950s. By 1960, a husseinīya was added to the dome chamber's eastern exterior.Footnote ³⁸

By 1395/2016, to reconstruct the original form of the buildings around the courtyard, all modern structures adjacent to the dome chamber and east side of the courtyard were destroyed. In 1398/2018, the local office of the IMCTH in West Azerbaijan Province began the reconstruction of the cells in their original form.Footnote ³⁹ To discover relics of an earlier shabistān, the IMCTH carried out an excavation next to the dome chamber (in the southeast of the courtyard) in 1397/2018. However, the excavation found no traces of the original shabistān.Footnote ⁴⁰ All traces were likely removed during the construction of the husseinīya in 1340/1960. In 1368/1987, the northern and western cells of the Zand Madrasa were demolished, and the existing building, modern and large, was constructed.Footnote ⁴¹

Decoration

Inside the dome chamber, a stunning mihrāb in carved plaster is the main decorative element, dominating the qibla side (Fig. 9). The mihrāb is distinctive among the Ilkhanid samples and, therefore, worthy of detailed description.Footnote ⁴² In contrast to Saljuq mihrābs of small cut bricks, the plaster mihrābs became standard in the Ilkhanid period. As mentioned, the Azerbaijan area had a significant position in the early Ilkhanid era, and it is no surprise that such a mihrāb appeared in Urmiya.

Figure 9.

Dome chamber, view of the mihrāb and qibla wall

The earliest photo of the mihrāb shows its bottom covered by tiles, which were detached in the course of restoration.Footnote ⁴³ By the early years of the 1360s/1980s, the MCTHIR had removed 1.5 m of the ground floor of the dome chamber and unearthed the lower part of the mihrāb. The lower part was first covered with baked brick and then redecorated with the original existing upper patterns of plaster in 1378/1999.Footnote ⁴⁴ The mihrāb is generally rectangular, measures 5.43 m wide by 8.28 m high, and projects out by 32 cm from the qibla wall. The mihrāb is in baked brick, and its main façade is embellished with various geometric, vegetal, and floral patterns of plaster (Fig. 10). A large panel, 1.22 m high, of vegetal patterns of carved stucco in high reliefs is on the top of the mihrāb. The panel has several rows of various elements, such as high-relief arabesque, multi-lobed leaf, and roundels. A foliated band adorns the mihrāb's outer frame. Another rectangular frame measuring 5.72 m x 2.54 m (covering most of the mihrāb) is within the first one. A decorative plaster pattern comprises a series of vegetal ornament interwoven with knotted triangles adorning the surface edged by the two rectangle frames. The combination creates a vast geometric pattern rare in Ilkhanid mihrābs.

Figure 10.

Mihrāb of the mosque, line drawings of the ornaments

An inscription band in interlaced Kufic contains verses from the Qur'an (2:255 and 256 in parts) and runs around the inner rectangle frame.Footnote ⁴⁵ The text includes the famous Throne verse (Āyat al-kursī), which contains a general evocation of the glory of Islam and has been widely applied on pious buildings in the Islamic lands.Footnote ⁴⁶ This Quranic text has also been inscribed in the other lkhanid mihrābs, such as those of Masjid-i Haftshūya (c. 740/1339–40) near Isfahan, Pīr Bakrān (698–712/1299–1312) at Linjan, and Bayazīd's mausoleum (c. 699/1299) in Bastam.Footnote ⁴⁷ This inscription elegantly merges into the adjacent plaster decoration and connects through strapwork bands extended from the rounded interlace segments. The interwoven method in Urmiya is reminiscent of the combination of five-fold and ten-fold pattern balances that cover the central portion of the exterior facade of Gunbad Kabūd (593/1196–97) in Maragha.Footnote ⁴⁸ The thickness of the inscription's letters is the same as the adjacent decorative patterns. The combination of letters such as alf and lam with geometrical patterns and knots creates a harmonious surface in which the inscription seems to extend across the decorative surface (Fig. 11). This innovative combination shows a new style of decoration in the Ilkhanid mihrābs.

Figure 11.

Mihrāb of the mosque, line drawing of the inner frame

On the inner edge of the central rectangle frame is an inscription band in Thuluth that contains the Qur'an (23: 1–12).Footnote ⁴⁹ The Qur'anic verses mention the characteristics of Muslim believers, including being humble in praying and observing it, which are aptly mentioned in the mihrāb to remind of the duty of Muslims. The same verses are seen in other Ilkhanid mihrābs, such as Rabi‘a Khātūn at Ushturjān and the Friday mosque in Tabriz.Footnote ⁵⁰ Within the latter frame is a pointed four-centered arch, which rests on the flat top of the capitals of two equally ornamented engaged round columns (Fig. 12). Each capital contains a series of fretwork grooves in plaster. This type of decoration is also seen in the Pīr Bakrān mausoleum.Footnote ⁵¹ The flat top of the capitals at the bottom level of the upper arch is also found in the mihrāb of Masjid-i Marand. It is notable that Sura al-Baqara (II) and al-Mu'manun (XXIII) of the mihrāb are among the most common Qur'anic suras of the Ilkhanid mihrābs in Iran.Footnote ⁵² So, it is likely that the mihrāb of the Masjid-i Jami‘ of Urmiya was imitated as a pattern in the later cases.

Figure 12.

Mihrāb of the mosque, view of decorative capital

An inscription band in Thuluth contains two hadiths from the prophet of Islam running on the extrados of the pointed arch. An elegant boss is at the apex of the arch and separates the two bands. The full texts are as below:

1. (a) : قال النبی علیه الصلوة والسلام اقبل علی صلوا تک ولاتکن من الغافلین

2. (b) : قال النبی علیه الصلوة والسلام كُونُوا فِي اَلدُّنْيَا أَضْيَافاً وَاِتَّخِذُوا اَلْمَسَاجِدَ بُيُوتا Footnote ⁵³

Translation: The prophet, peace and blessing be upon him, said peace and blessings be upon him, come and pray and do not be one of the Heedless. The prophet, peace and blessing be upon him, said be guests in this world and make mosques your homes.

It is worth mentioning that the Urmiya mihrāb is the earliest surviving from medieval Iran that bears two hadiths.Footnote ⁵⁴ The first hadith (a) in Kufic is found on the small mihrāb in the Friday mosque of Gulpāygān.Footnote ⁵⁵ A similar text, dated 516/1122, is on a small memorial stone in marble, which is generally considered the earliest surviving tombstone of Imam Reza (the eighth Shi‘ite Imam).Footnote ⁵⁶ The similarity shows the popularity of the first hadith. A vegetal pattern in relief is placed in the spandrel of the arch.

A stucco grille, in a color lighter than other parts of the mihrāb, covers the tympanum of the arch. The grid forms a geometric pattern and contains a ring of twelve large carved hemispherical bosses in high relief. Through the panel, the remains of an earlier carved stucco mihrāb in plaster are visible.Footnote ⁵⁷ This stucco molding lattice was installed in a later modification, likely in the Qajar period.Footnote ⁵⁸

At the bottom of the mihrāb is a niche topped by a trefoil arch.Footnote ⁵⁹ Notably, the form appeared in the Ilkhanid style and likely replaced the earlier Saljuq pointed arch. A similar form can also be seen in other mihrābs, such as Masjid-i Jami‘of Marand (731/1330).Footnote ⁶⁰ A deeply carved stucco decoration is preserved inside the top of the niche. An inscription band in Kufic, containing Qur'anic verses (3: 18), runs around the arch.Footnote ⁶¹ The inscription band has a distinguishing composition of scripts, such as lam and alaf, about the arch. The spandrel of the pointed arch around the central niche comprises relief-carved split palmettos. In addition, two carved hemispherical bosses are seen on the spandrel.

A further inscription band (signature band) in Thuluth in relief, immediately above the Kufic inscription band, gives the name of the artist and the date of construction (Fig. 13). The text is as below:

Figure 13.

Mihrāb of the mosque, signature band

Translation: The work of ‘Abd al-Mū’min b. Sharaf al-Shāh, the painter of Tabriz, in the month of Rabi‘al-Akhar in the year 676 (September 1277).

The adornment of the band is limited to an arabesque pattern in less relief and two large, knotted sections. In contrast to other elaborated parts of the mihrāb, the above-mentioned inscription band is less ornamented. It seems that the designer aimed to create a contrast so the viewer can easily recognize the artist and pay tribute to him. It is worth mentioning that the earliest surviving inscription of a mihrāb that bears the date and name of the craftsman is that of Imāmzāda Karrār at Būzān (528/1133), in Isfahan.Footnote ⁶² The mihrāb of Urmiya Jami‘ is the oldest dated Ilkhanid mihrāb of plaster, which is still in its original place. It is also worth mentioning that the date (676) is scribed on a glazed tile in the Imāmzada Sayyid Isḥāq in the city of Sava.Footnote ⁶³ Such can suggest the popularity of architectural epigraphy in various styles in the second half of the seventh/twelfth century.

The title of naqqāsh (painter) can be seen at the end of a plaster Qur'anic inscription in the Pīr Bakrān monument.Footnote ⁶⁴ Applying the title of naqqāsh, as opposed to a common title like ustād (master), is rare in monumental inscriptions. Literally, the title naqqāsh means designer, who creates various artistic patterns.

Compared to earlier Saljuq plaster mihrābs, such as Pīr-i Hamza’-i Sabzpūsh in Abarku, Ardistan, Imāmzada Karrār, and Gunbad-i ‘Alavīān in Hamadan (all in the sixth/twelfth century), the Ilkhanid mihrāb at Urmiya has an identical structure but in a larger size.Footnote ⁶⁵ It displays the importance of the mihrāb and its ornament by applying various decorative designs and inscription bands of carved stucco. The latter caused the progress of different styles of epigraphy to elaborate mihrāb surfaces. The mihrāb at Urmiya originally had an azure (bright blue) background, which disappeared.Footnote ⁶⁶ It is worth mentioning that the light and dark blue plasters were two primary tones whose application continued from the Saljuq period.Footnote ⁶⁷

In contrast to Ilkhanid mihrābs from the eighth/thirteenth century, such as Isfahan's Uljaytu and Marand, the patron's name was not inscribed. The erection of the Urmiya mihrāb was contemporary with the reign of Abāqā (r. 663–81/1265–82), who followed his ancestral shamanism, giving Islam no position within his reign.Footnote ⁶⁸ Thus, ordering the building of a mihrāb was not considered a pious act and provided no honor to the patron at the time.

Inside the dome chamber, there are several plaster inscription bands, which can be organized into three levels. At a height of 5.14 m from the ground floor is an inscription band in Thuluth with an azure background. The band is 61 cm high, encircling the dome chamber (Fig. 14). The band contains Qur'anic text (Qur'an: 76, 48, and 56) and ends with the name of the artist, Sharif Muhammad Afsar (Afshar?) and is dated 1250/1834 (Qajar time).Footnote ⁶⁹

Figure 14.

Dome chamber, view end of the Thuluth band

At the height of 3.76 m, two rectangular decorative frames in plaster, each containing an inscription band, flanks the mihrāb (Fig. 15).Footnote ⁷⁰ Their inscription styles differ. The text in the south-west frame is in Thuluth and bears the name of Fath ‘Ali Shāh (r. 1212-1250/1797–1834) and Hussein Qulī Biglar Beygī Afshār, the governor of Urmiya (r. 1212-1236/1798–1821). The southeast frame on the qibla wall contains a seven-tiered text in Nasta‘līq. However, the sixth and seventh lines have vanished. The text is damaged and mostly illegible. The text likely mentions the repair of the mosque and the name of Hājī Khalīl, who was possibly the patron or commissioner of the repair. The inscription of carved plaster in Thuluth with the name of Fath ‘Ali Shāh, which can be seen here, is rare amid the other Iranian mosques.Footnote ⁷¹

Figure 15.

Dome chamber, view of the Qajar inscription band

A carved stucco Kufic inscription band, 83 cm high, is located at the height of 8.70 m from the ground floor (Fig. 16a). The band encircles the dome chamber and contains Qur'anic verses (48:1–5 and 6 in part).Footnote ⁷² A similar text can be seen in the flanged tomb tower at Bastam (700/1300).Footnote ⁷³ The upper part of the inscription is ornamented with a repetitive vegetal relief pattern in lines. A low relief of a scrolling vine with various vegetal apes embellishes the background of the inscription band. Zeniths of letters like alf and lam beside each other are decorated with a stylized leaf. The letter ri is upright and terminates with a floral pattern. The letter hi is cursive, and over it is an interlaced floral form (Fig. 16b). The epigraphy style of the band is reminiscent of that of the Masjid-i Jami‘ of Qazvin (500–509/1106–1115) and Masjid–i Jami‘ of Zavara (530/1135).Footnote ⁷⁴ The dating of the inscription band in Urmiya is still disputable. However, due to some similarities, it was likely contemporary with the Ilkhanid mihrāb of the dome chamber.Footnote ⁷⁵ The remains of a further inscription band in Thuluth, dated 1309/1892, are below the dome. The inscription begins with one Qur'anic verse (24:1) and finishes with another (26:89). The middle parts of the writing have vanished. Unlike the other Saljuq dome chambers, such as Qarva, Sujas, and Marand, there is no trace of traditional decorative joint plugs inside the Urmiya dome chamber. This may suggest that the masjid had no powerful patron to complete its decoration.

Figure 16.

(a) Dome chamber, encircling inscription band, (b) detailed line drawing

To the west side of the dome chamber is a projecting iwan-like portal, the main entrance to the west shabistān (Fig. 17). The portal is 8.54 m high, 5.53 m wide, and 1.89 m deep. A four-centered pointed arch decorated with muqarnas of plaster dominates the portal. The area above the arch is adorned with a blue inscription band of glazed tiles (kashī). The inscription in Nasta‘liq is divided into five sections and mentions the restoration of the masjid-i jami‘ by Haji Khalil, whose name was mentioned earlier in the dome chamber. The glazed tile decoration shows it is a later addition to the portal. On the flanking sides of the portal arch are similar decorative patterns embracing three medallions in carved plaster. The spandrel of the central arch is decorated with a floral design of carved stucco.

Figure 17.

View of the west shabistān portal

Two symmetrical medallions are on the portal facade. A hadith from the prophet of Islam about the significance of congregational prayer starts from the medallion to the right of the viewer and continues to another medallion on the opposite side (Fig. 18). The full text of this hadith is as follows:

Translation: Except that whoever walked to a mosque where he asked for the congregation had seventy thousand good deeds at every step, seventy thousand bad things were erased from him, and he would be raised from the efforts like that, and if he died. He was on that, and all God Almighty had seventy thousand kings who would return him in his grave, comfort him in his loneliness and ask for forgiveness for him until he was resurrected.

Figure 18.

West portal, west medallion view

Below the medallion, a tombstone is on the façade of the portal (to the viewer's left). According to its inscription, the deceased's name is Hāshim Sultān b. Qażikhān Qarākūiyy, who passed away in 1171/1122–23. To the west of the portal, within an arcade, is a further entrance to the west shabistān. Over the door is a small panel of plaster, which bears an inscription in Nasta‘liq. This band provides the story of constructing the madrasa adjacent to the Masjid-i Jami‘ by Reza Qulī Khān Bīglar Begī Urumi Afshār (r.1181–85/1767–71), beneficent governor of Urmiya, for religious students in the month of Rajab 1184/November 1770 (Fig. 19).Footnote ⁷⁷ The full text is as below:

Figure 19.

View of the foundation inscription band 1184/1770

Translation: In the name of God, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful, because of the achievement of the Lord, the Highest, including the status of the Amir Reza Qulī Khān-i Biglar Begī Urumī Afshār, the apt successor of the heavenly Muhammad Mūsā Khān-i Qāsimlū, this school in the fortune days of its reign, next to the congregational mosque, for the students of the religious of the Lord of Prophets and the Pure Imams, may God bless them all, was built it in the month of Rajab in the year 1184.

Mīirzā Rashid al-Dīn Adīb al-Shu‘ara, in his 1183/1769 book Tārīkh-i Afshār, mentions the construction of the cells (hujras), the courtyard of the madrasa, and a building as Ḥusseīnī khāna (ḥusseīnīya), adjacent the dome chamber and two minarets.Footnote ⁷⁸ However, there is no trace of the ḥusseīnīya or minarets at present. As mentioned earlier, the word “next to” in the inscription band suggests that the mosque and madrasa were independent, only connected via a portal facing the madrasa courtyard. In around 1350/1971–72, by removing a series of blind niches in front of the dome chamber, two combined structures are now integrated. It is worthy of note that the exterior surface of the Urmiya mosque has no decoration. This absence can also be seen in the exterior façade of other Saljuq mosques, such as Qirva, Sujas, Ardistan, Burujird, and Zavara.

Dating

The detailed history of Urmiya in the Saljuq era (431–590/1040–1194) needs clarification. After the conquest of Khurasan in 429/1038, the Saljuqs main goal was to abolish Buyid supremacy and control central Iran; Azerbaijan was not prioritized at the time.Footnote ⁷⁹ In 452/1055, Tughril Beg (r. 431–455/1040–63) invaded this region. However, due to freezing winter and a shortage of army food supplements, he failed to take over the city of Tabriz. By 454/1062, he invaded again and besieged Tabriz. Finally, Abū Nasr Muhammad b. Vahsūdān, the governor of Tabriz, made peace with Ṭughril by paying a great deal of money and surrendering his son as a hostage, so Ṭughril refused to occupy the city.Footnote ⁸⁰

Ṭughril's successor, Ālp Arsalān (r. 455–465/1063–73), came to Azerbaijan and continued the war with the Byzantine army. Finally, in Mantzikert (Malazgirt) in 463/1071, Ālp Arsalān defeated the army and opened Anatolia to Turkmen invasion.Footnote ⁸¹ Despite Saljuq domination in Iran, Azerbaijan was controlled by previous local governors such as Ravadīān, Aḥmadilān, and, finally, Atābeg of Azerbaijan or the Ildegūizds (c. 540–622/1145–1225).Footnote ⁸² The founder of this dynasty, Shams al-Dīn Ildegūzid (r. 530–71/1136–75), ruled for over 40 years in Azerbaijan. Concerned with literature and architecture, Shams al-Dīn and his wife built and endowed a madrasa in Hamadan, where they were buried.Footnote ⁸³ Two other tomb towers in Nakhchivan were constructed in the period: Mū’mana Khātūn (582/1186) and Yūsif ibn Kuseyir Mausoleum (555–57/1161–62).Footnote ⁸⁴ So, due to his long sovereignty, interest in architecture, and construction of several monuments, it is possible that the domed building in the Friday mosque of Urmiya was erected during the reign of Shams al-Dīn Ildegūzid, around the middle of the sixth/twelfth century.