In essence, the aim of this book is to explore the old adage: ‘what's in a name?’. The subject matter is a collection of deities who were worshipped in a relatively contemporary period (across the first century bc to fourth century ad) and have similar names (Mithras, Mihr and Miiro), but were geographically spread over a wide geographical area (from Britain to southern Afghanistan). At the centre of this study is an analysis of images depicting these deities, for much of the evidence relating to them survives in this form, particularly in regard to the Roman cult of Mithras. In doing this, the authors have sought to elaborate on aspects of these deities and how they might relate to each other.
An attempt to ascertain the relationship between deities whose names appear to be variations of word ‘Mitra’ is certain to raise a few eyebrows, for at first it would appear to echo the sentiments of the great Belgian scholar Franz Cumont in the early twentieth century. Cumont believed that the cult of Mithras was transmitted directly into the Roman World from Persia; thus, it was acceptable to group Mitra and Mithras together as essentially a single deity. For all his achievements, there are very few now who would concur with Cumont in this assessment, given that Mithras and Mitra have, despite their similar names, more distinctions between them than similarities. However, the authors are acutely aware of this and are quick to dispel the notion that they are simply replicating Cumont's approach. Rather, what they are interested in here is the extent to which we can establish what the aforementioned similarities between these deities were, as opposed to proving or disproving as to whether all these deities have a common root and what that might be. Indeed, it becomes clear throughout this volume that there are a number of shared attributes, but that these have been subjected to varying degrees of localization.
The book contains six chapters, the first three of which address aspects of the Roman Cult of Mithras, while the latter three discuss Mihr of Sasanian Iran, Miiro in Kushan Bactria and Apollo-Mithras in the Roman client-kingdom of Commagene. Needless to say, the wide geographical range of these chapters means that it would be difficult for even the most well-informed Mithraic scholars to be familiar with all the evidence discussed, but in this regard the book excels as the authors easily guide the reader through the context of the evidence discussed in each section.
The first chapter explores the theme of reconstruction in regards to the image of the bull-slaying scene that was present in every Roman mithraeum. In so doing, it raises pertinent questions about how such images were perceived by Mithraic initiates and how this could vary depending on the context in which the image was observed. Furthermore, it justifiably highlights the danger that later restorations can pose to exploring the meanings imbued in religious objects if they are undertaken from a largely aesthetical point of view.
The second chapter focuses on reliefs from the mithraeum of Dura-Europos. Here, the extent to which such images were influenced by local Palmyrene tradition is discussed, particularly with regard to the relief dedicated by Zenobius, who took the usual step of depicting himself alongside Mithras slaying the bull. As we are usually restricted to only the names of patrons who dedicated a Mithraic altar or relief (never their depiction in such contexts), for this study the Zenobius relief does indeed beg inclusion, and it provides another interesting dimension to the discussion as to the extent of localization among Mithraic iconography.
On the subject of the Dura-Europos mithraeum, however, there are a couple of points I would raise that go unacknowledged in this volume regarding the cult of Mithras in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. The first is that I think it worthwhile to highlight that the cult of Mithras was, for reasons that remain unapparent, never popular in this half of the Roman Empire. Indeed, more mithraea have been found in Pannonia than from across the entire Near East combined. Thus, while it is not an aim of this book to present distributions of evidence, the absence of evidence in the east is perhaps worth acknowledging when discussing the communication of ideas across these wide areas; sometimes it is just as interesting to highlight the gaps in the evidence, as well as correlations. Therefore, when it is stated in the book that the mithraeum at Dura-Europos is ‘one of the best places to study the phenomenon of the Roman cult of Mithras in the east’ (p. 39), it is worth bearing in mind that this is partly due to the considerable lack of alternatives.
However, the second point I would raise regards one of the other mithraea that is situated in the Near East. I am surprised that, for a volume focused on images of Mithra(s), there is at no point a mention of the mithraeum at Hawarte. Located in a cave on the fringe of the Syrian desert and the subject of relatively recent excavations, this mithraeum, which appears to have been in use from the late third to early fifth centuries ad, was found to contain a series of unique wall-paintings which appear to have drawn heavily on Zoroastrian tradition. Among these images are included: a man in Persian dress (one presumes Mithras) standing alongside a white horse; a city under siege with black demonic heads arrayed along its ramparts; and lions devouring these ‘demons’. Notably, when discussing Mihr in chapter 4, it is mentioned that a seal bearing his image also carries the epithet ‘the warrior of the white horse’ (p. 96). That this mithraeum and its images are not discussed at all seems to me a missed opportunity, given the subject matter of the book.
In chapter 3, how the setting of Mithraic reliefs and mithraea varied is discussed, with particular attention given to that of the rock-carved bull-slaying scene at Bourg-Saint-Andéol. In archaeology context is, of course, everything, yet it is true that the context of mithraea is rarely acknowledged in studies on this topic (with the exception of those located in Ostia and Rome). Quite rightly, this chapter highlights that, when setting is taken into account, notable differences can be detected which perhaps provide us with indications of alternate ways in which Mithraic communities operated and what attributes of the cult they considered most important. Additionally, it is asserted here that the setting of certain mithraea in Ostia and at Močići (in modern Croatia) challenges the ‘established view of the exclusive character of the mithraeum’ (p. 72). This is certainly true, although there are other examples which demonstrate that mithraea were even more apparent than traditionally thought that also deserve a mention. For example, the late third-century mithraeum situated at Lentia (Noricum), for example, was constructed as a stand-alone structure next to a temple to Dea Roma and the Genius Augusta, indicating a Mithraic community of considerable prominence in the town.
The final three chapters address: an image of Mihr which appears alongside (presumably) the Sassanian kings Shapur II and Ardashir II in a rock-cut relief at Tāq-e Bostān in modern Iran; the depiction of Miiro on coins of the Kushan Empire (an area encompassing modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and parts of India); and, finally, the famous Apollo-Mithras statue from Commagene. Due to space and my own admittedly limited knowledge of these kingdoms, I can only provide a brief comment on these chapters, but I would urge those who wish to study the cult of Mithras to read these sections, for they contain information that raises interesting questions. In particular, that in all three instances these deities provide patronage in some form to the rulers of these kingdoms elicits one to wonder whether there are comparisons to be sought on a more immediate scale in Roman world via the Tetrarchic support for Mithras on the Danube, and in the wider vein of the move towards solar-monotheism that later Roman emperors exhibited. Furthermore, I cannot help but ponder as to whether the close connection exhibited by the Tāq-e Bostān relief between Mihr and the Sassanian kings might be explored further in relation to my earlier comments regarding the lack of Mithraic presence in the eastern Roman Empire: was it the similarities between Mithras and Mihr that made the former relatively unpopular in the East? However, that is a question for another time.
Overall, this book poses interesting questions that urge us to cast aside presumptions generated, in part, from the rejection of Cumont's model of the linear transmission of a Mithras belief-system from Persia to Rome. What it highlights are broad and fluid concepts that could subsequently undergo processes of localization when embraced by a range of different cultures. Furthermore, Mithras is not alone in this regard: the epilogue, provided by Claudia Brittenham (a scholar of Aztec religious practice), demonstrates how similar processes might be recognized in the worship of a range of deities in Mesoamerica that share the name Quetzalcoatl. As such, one is left to wonder the extent to which we might trace similar phenomena amongst other deities in the Graeco-Roman world. To return to the central question, ‘what's in a name?’, the answer would appear to be quite a lot.
