The attributes of an effective conductor

Whether choral conducting is teachable or not has troubled researchers who seem to agree that an efficient conductor should possess various attributes, such as refined conducting gestures and movements, rehearsal strategies, enthusiasm and commitment. In the UK, Durrant (Reference DURRANT1994, Reference DURRANT2003) explored the definition of ‘effective’ conducting and suggested a tripartite model towards a ‘deeper’ choral communication, which is a communication that encourages responsiveness from the singers. The tripartite ‘supermodel choral conductor’ consists of principles related to knowledge of the choral repertoire, human voice, understanding of the nature of the conductor's role (termed ‘philosophical principles underpinning role’, including pedagogical principles); ‘musical-technical skills’ (such as aural skills, gestures, rehearsal strategies) and ‘interpersonal and leadership skills’ (ways of fostering motivation and enjoyment of singing) (Table 1).

Table 1

Examples of elements in the key attributes of an effective choral conductor (Durrant, Reference DURRANT2003, pp. 100–102)

In America, Gumm (Reference GUMM1993) identified eleven choral-teaching styles, which can be characterised by various patterns, so-called ‘dimensions’ (eight dimensions have been identified), of self-reported behaviour. Two later studies by Gumm (Reference GUMM2004, Reference GUMM2007) showed that the choral conducting profession needs to establish a better match between teaching behaviours, teaching styles and the standards in music within the choral classroom. In Gumm's later study (Reference GUMM2007) college students were asked to rate methodical and sociable characteristics of their conductors. The ‘methodical’ items to be rated included presentation of material, course organisation, preparation for the class, ‘helped me learn’ and overall effectiveness. The ‘sociable’ items rated respect, accessibility and enthusiasm. The findings of the study suggested that college students appreciated supporting teaching behaviours such as praise and positive feedback but they also preferred not to simply be told what to do, but instead to be asked for their insights into the ensemble experience. The results also pointed out that the more able, hard-working and experienced the musicians, the less attention they paid to their conductors’ sociability. They were instead focused on the activity itself. On the contrary, those motivated by their enjoyment for the music being performed sought a conductor with developed sensitivity and sociability. This finding particularly stresses the significance of interpersonal skills as part and parcel of the choral conductor's role, especially when working with children or non-professional singers. Are all of Durrant's ‘attributes’ and Gumm's ‘characteristics’ teachable? In particular, can the ‘inter-personal skills’ and ‘sociable items’ be effectively addressed in a teaching context?

Particular attention to the leadership skills of conductors was given by Armstrong and Armstrong (Reference ARMSTRONG and ARMSTRONG1996) who stressed that conductors can have a transforming impact on their students as often, due to rehearsal requirements of many music programmes, students spend more time with the conductor than with any other educator. Furthermore, Apfelstadt (Reference APFELSTADT1997) explained that there are key skills, which can be teachable, that describe effective choral leadership. These skills are divided into two groups: (i) musical (i.e. artistic intuition, musicality/expressiveness and aural sensitivity) and (ii) extra-musical (i.e. articulateness, confidence, effort, enthusiasm and initiative). Yet, Apfelstadt recognised that some people achieve or naturally possess a leadership characteristic that is difficult to label, which represents an artful combination of musical and extra-musical skills. Although this elusive quality, which makes some people stand out immediately, can be broken down into its components and analysed it is impossible to duplicate or mimic. Therefore, she suggested that through rehearsal planning that addresses the areas of preparation, presentation and evaluation, all of which can be taught in choral conducting education programmes, students can increase their effectiveness as choral leaders. She concluded by saying that the pursuit of leadership skills is a lifelong task. Finally, Barresi (Reference BARRESI2000) put emphasis on conductors’ (i) personal qualities, such as commitment, dedication, motivation, enthusiasm and trust towards the singers; (ii) professional understanding (i.e. children's vocal development, repertoire, basics of singing instruction) and (iii) technical competence (i.e. effective vocal modelling, a ‘good ear’ for vocal tone, pitch accuracy and rehearsal management).

Theoretical perspective 1: effective teaching and learning environments

Outside the field of choral education, research on effective learning environments within higher education (Entwistle, Reference ENTWISTLE, Entwistle and Tomlinson2007) and the workplace (Eraut, Reference ERAUT2004, Reference ERAUT, Entwistle and Tomlinson2007) has identified several characteristics that are believed to help people learn. To begin with, Entwistle underlines that teaching and learning in higher education can be seen as an interactive system that depends on the characteristics of the learner, the specific nature of the subject matter and the teaching–learning environment. Therefore, he proposes a set of seven concepts (empathy, enthusiasm, explanation, clarity, structure, level and pace) that can describe the (effective) interactions between learner characteristics, subject-based teaching activities and other aspects of the overall teaching and learning environment provided for learners and experienced by them in different ways.

Eraut (Reference ERAUT2004, Reference ERAUT, Entwistle and Tomlinson2007) carried out research into how people learn in the workplace and his studies identified three favourable conditions for learning: (i) feedback and support from the environment, as the environment has a huge effect on performance and motivation; (ii) commitment to the work and the colleagues by participation in groups and through appreciation of the value of one's work; and (iii) personal agency, by which he referred to the participants’ choices, competence and progress. The contextual factors that could influence learning in the workplace were also identified. These are (i) the encounters and relationships with people at work, (ii) the allocation and structuring of the work and (iii) the individuals’ participation and expectations of their performance and progress.

Theoretical perspective 2: cognitive apprenticeship contexts

The theoretical construct of cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., Reference COLLINS, BROWN, NEWMAN and Resnick1989) enquires into teaching the processes that experts use to handle complex tasks and on learning through guided experience on cognitive (subject knowledge) and metacognitive (self-correction, self-monitoring) levels, rather than physical skills and processes. The emphasis on the word ‘cognitive’ draws attention to the fact that apprenticeship techniques reach well beyond the physical skills more formally associated with traditional apprenticeship, to the kind of cognitive skills normally related to conventional schooling. To facilitate considerations related to pedagogical and theoretical issues on teaching and learning, Collins et al. (Reference COLLINS, BROWN, NEWMAN and Resnick1989) developed a framework, which describes four dimensions that constitute any learning environment (see Table 2). Each dimension is characterised by several features that, according to the authors, should be considered in constructing and evaluating learning environments (Collins et al., Reference COLLINS, BROWN, NEWMAN and Resnick1989, pp. 476–477). Overall, cognitive apprenticeship suggests that learning has to be understood with respect to a practice, as a whole, within its multiplicity of relations – both within the community and with the world at large. Choral conducting tuition shares similarities with cognitive apprenticeship environments, as choral conductors practise through rehearsing with their choirs as well as receive coaching in gestural and vocal technique from experts.

Table 2

Cognitive apprenticeship – characteristics of ideal learning environments

This article examines theoretical constructs that deal with learning in higher education, the workplace and in cognitive apprenticeship environments because choral conducting education in the UK is situated either within higher education institutions or in apprenticeship-like settings (e.g. short programmes or workshops offered by independent bodies), where conductors learn through observation of others and ‘on the job’ (Varvarigou, Reference VARVARIGOU2009). The heuristic theoretical framework that is proposed draws on theories on effective learning within diverse environments and wishes to offer a supportive theoretical grounding for the exploration of choral conducting education in the UK today.

Theoretical perspective 3: theories of expertise

The traditional underlying assumption about conductors is that good conductors are born, not made, a perception that is refuted by contemporary research on expertise acquisition (Chi, Reference CHI, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006; Feltovitch et al., Reference FELTOVITCH, PRIETULA, HOFFMAN, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006; Hunt, Reference HUNT, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006; Lehmann & Gruber, Reference LEHMANN, GRUBER, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006; Zimmerman, Reference ZIMMERMAN, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006; Ericsson et al., Reference ERICSSON, PRIETULA and COOKERY2007). Existing studies on choral conducting practice have so far illustrated that in order to be called ‘experts’, effective choral conductors need to possess several attributes (see Table 1). Theories of expertise have influenced the suggested framework and challenge the common perception that, in order to be effective, choral conductors must be charismatic (Lebrecht, Reference LEBRECHT1991). Mieg (Reference MIEG, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006) underlines that declaring someone an expert is a social act, which may or may not correspond to an intrinsic characteristic of the person so designated. Zimmerman's research (Reference ZIMMERMAN, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006) highlights that through deliberate practice, which entails (i) high level of concentration, (ii) the structuring of specific training tasks to facilitate setting appropriate personal goals, (iii) monitoring informative feedback and (iv) opportunities for repetition and error correction, the individuals can develop various levels of expertise (Zimmerman, Reference ZIMMERMAN, Ericsson, Charness, Feltovitch and Hoffman2006, p. 705). So, contrary to the everyday belief that ‘highly talented’ musicians need not practise as much as the less talented, accumulated hours of practice are an irrefutable predictor of excellence. The issue regarding choral conductors and practising is that they can only effectively practise in front of a choir.

A suggested framework

This article brings together theories on effective teaching and learning environments with an intention to suggest a theoretical framework that could enhance and inform choral conducting education. The framework that is described in the following paragraphs (see

) considers time (extent and duration of tuition) and location (teaching contexts) as determinant parameters of effective education. However, it acknowledges that more than the time and location, it is the experience of interacting with the music and the singers, in particular social surroundings (socio-cultural contexts where practice takes place, i.e. schools, community centres or church) and under the guidance of experts that seem to produce desired changes in the learner. The ultimate goal of the suggested framework is to be inclusive of all the parameters that could potentially affect the process of the education of choral conductors and to suggest methods and practices that can maximise learners’ development.

Fig. 1