In this new work, Luke Timothy Johnson links pervasive religious forms in the Greco-Roman city with features of the early Christian movement. He spotlights four basic complexes in Greco-Roman religion and demonstrates that although the proportions vary a great deal, all four also appear in early Christianity if the Constantinian period is included.

The first two chapters of the book address rhetorical and methodological issues that have traditionally made it difficult to fully appreciate the links between early Christianity and Greco-Roman religious forms. The first of these, “Beyond Attack and Apology: A New Look at an Old Debate,” traces the ways the early Christian movement distanced itself from “pagan” practices, and its tendency “to categorize as demonic any powers inimical to Christianity” (8). From here, Johnson describes how these perspectives have affected the way Greco-Roman religion was viewed and studied in the early stages of the development of our field, and how they became involved in Protestant polemics against Rome, invoking the work of Jonathan Z. Smith and linking this also with the early quests for the historical Jesus—quests that sought to present Jesus as uniquely different both from any Greco-Roman tradition and also from Judaism. This discussion carries forward into the second chapter, “Beginning a New Conversation,” which moves from these polemical issues into how developments in the academic study of religion and in archaeology, papyrology, and epigraphy have reenergized the study of Greco-Roman religion, early Christianity, and early Judaism.

The body of the work is the exploration of a typology of “ways of being religious” within Greco-Roman polytheism, and a demonstration that these ways are also present in early Christianity. Given that no satisfactory definition of “religion” exists, this approach is a useful one, and it is especially important for a discussion of this kind since Greco-Roman polytheism is so diverse (as are, of course, early Judaism and early Christianity). Throughout the book, the author's discussion of the religious symphony that is polytheism is very helpful and clear—this is by no means usual and is to be applauded. Greco-Roman polytheism is accorded the same respect and complexity as the Jewish and Christian traditions. Though not a definition, “ways of being religious” still does set certain focal points for discussion that work better for one tradition than for another. In this volume, the typologies are based on Greco-Roman polytheism but clearly with a discussion of Christianity as a destination in view. Still, strong connections are made and the four “ways” are clearly illustrated in the discussions of Judaism and Christianity, though confusingly the choice was made to refer to the types as “Religiousness A,” “Religiousness B,” “Religiousness C,” or “Religiousness D” in the later chapters of the book—this reviewer needed a little crib sheet on an index card to keep them straight.

Each of the four ways is described focusing on the example of a single individual (or text) who could be said to predominantly favor that mode, though each embodies elements of the others as well. The four modes are “Religion as Participation in Divine Benefits” (Aelius Aristides, an inspired choice), which includes benefits both in this life and the next. This is followed by “Religion as Moral Transformation” (Epictetus), “Religion as Transcending the World” (Poimandres), and “Religion as Stabilizing the World (Plutarch). The examples are considered in some depth, and through the focus on four individuals, Johnson is able to discuss the many different ways people might experience a relationship with the divine (however construed) and organize a life in relation to it—an approach that greatly humanizes the discussion, even while complicating it. Human beings are complicated and do not fit neatly into categories, and this comes through very clearly in these four chapters, creating a rich texture. At the same time, I wish that “as he has done, he do so more and more”—pointing out that, for example, transcendence is a benefit that the gods or God may help one achieve; that morally transformed persons will stabilize society; that a stable society might seem a transcendent benefit to those living in chaos; and so on and so forth. One must begin somewhere, and the use of biography as a heuristic device is an excellent way to nuance the discussion of the categories. For this reason, it is disappointing that the brief discussion of “Ways of Being Jewish in the Greco-Roman World,” and the eight chapters on early Christianity that follow, do not for the most part continue this approach. The chapters on early Christianity are structured more by a chronological arrangement of texts over the first four Christian centuries, though the ways of being religious are pointed out for each major epoch discussed, and connections to non-Christian Greco-Roman institutions are made throughout.

This volume is a valuable addition to the Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library. It is richly annotated, provoking thought and questions and providing the notes and resources needed to pursue those questions further. I believe it achieves the author's goal of presenting Greco-Roman religious practice and sensibility without the Christian apologetics and value judgments that have so often obscured the appreciation of this rich and unique tradition.