LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this article you will be able to:
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identify the defining features of relational aggression in girls and how these are different from overt bullying
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recognise specific vulnerable populations that are likely to be disproportionately affected by girl-to-girl bullying
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apply evidence-based approaches to screen, intervene and support both the victims and the perpetrators in clinical, educational and community settings.
Relational bullying among girls is a form of covert aggression that is often overlooked owing to its subtlety. Unlike overt physical or verbal bullying, it operates through tactics such as social exclusion, gossip and emotional manipulation. These behaviours can severely damage a girl’s sense of belonging and self-worth, yet they often go unnoticed by teachers, parents and even close friends (Crick & Grotpeter Reference Crick and Grotpeter1995; Coyne et al. Reference Coyne, Archer and Eslea2006). By shedding light on this under-recognised form of harm, we can better understand its impact and develop strategies for prevention and support.
When thinking of bullying, you would assume there are physical fights or name-calling. But for many girls, bullying often takes on a different form, which is less obvious but just as harmful. Relational aggression challenges the stereotype that girls, often socialised to be agreeable, are not aggressive (Underwood Reference Underwood2003). Research shows that girls can be just as aggressive as boys, but their methods are often more subtle – such as exclusion, spreading malicious rumours or using the ‘silent treatment’ (social ostracism) (Crick & Grotpeter Reference Crick and Grotpeter1995). These gender differences in bullying behaviours have been observed across various cultures, reinforcing the idea that relational aggression is a distinct and widespread form of harm (Smith et al. Reference Smith, López-Castro, Robinson and Görzig2019).
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in 2019 around 20% of students aged 12–18 in the USA reported experiencing bullying at school (CDC 2019). However, these statistics likely underestimate the true extent of the problem, particularly when it comes to hidden forms of bullying that do not leave physical scars but can inflict lasting emotional damage (Kosciw et al. Reference Kosciw, Clark, Truong and Zongrone2020).
One reason girl-to-girl bullying often goes unnoticed is because of societal expectations. Girls are encouraged to be peacemakers, which makes direct physical aggression less acceptable, and more subtle behaviours – like social exclusion and manipulation – are often overlooked or dismissed (Underwood Reference Underwood2003; Coyne et al. Reference Coyne, Archer and Eslea2006). Since these behaviours are frequently written off as ‘friend drama’ or just part of growing up, many girls do not even recognise that they are being bullied. Unfortunately, this silence can have serious mental health consequences, including anxiety, depression and low self-esteem (Espelage et al. Reference Espelage, Low and De La Rue2012).
Although relational aggression can occur across all genders and social contexts, this article focuses specifically on girls, because the current research base shows higher reported prevalence and distinct social dynamics within female peer groups. It is important to acknowledge that similar behaviours can be observed in boys and in mixed-gender interactions. However, much of the literature to date has examined these behaviours within the context of female friendships, which informs the scope and language of this review.
This article explores the hidden nature of relational aggression, the social norms that allow it to persist and the emotional toll it takes on its victims. It also examines practical ways to identify, prevent and address this form of bullying, offering strategies for educators, parents and clinicians.
The nature of bullying among girls
Distinguishing relational aggression from overt aggression
Relational aggression is a covert form of bullying that harms individuals by manipulating social relationships rather than by direct physical or verbal confrontation. Unlike the overt aggression seen more in boys, which includes physical fights, open threats and explicit insults, relational aggression operates through exclusion, rumour-spreading and silent treatment (Crick & Grotpeter Reference Crick and Grotpeter1995; Underwood Reference Underwood2003).
As relational aggression is often subtle and indirect, perpetrators can deny wrongdoing, making it difficult to detect and address. In contrast, overt aggression is typically recognised quickly owing to its visible nature. A girl who is physically attacked or verbally insulted has clear evidence of mistreatment, whereas a victim of relational aggression may find themselves gradually excluded from social activities or targeted by malicious gossip, often without a clear source or explanation (Coyne et al. Reference Coyne, Archer and Eslea2006). This ambiguity contributes to victims’ confusion, self-doubt and reluctance to seek help.
Although relational aggression does not leave physical scars, its psychological impact can be profound. Victims often experience anxiety, depression and a diminished sense of self-worth. This can have long-term consequences that extend into adulthood (Espelage et al. Reference Espelage, Low and De La Rue2012). The emotional manipulation involved in relational aggression can make it particularly insidious. This is because it erodes trust, isolates the target and fosters a hostile social environment while remaining largely invisible to teachers, parents and even peers.
The role of social and developmental dynamics
Adolescence is a period when peer approval and group belonging hold enormous weight. For many young people – especially girls – social status is tied to perceived popularity, shared interests and group loyalty (Underwood Reference Underwood2003). In this context, relational aggression can become a strategic tool to assert or maintain dominance. A girl may be excluded not because of individual conflict, but because her removal strengthens the aggressor’s position. Bystanders often align with the bully to avoid becoming targets themselves, creating a feedback loop that normalises exclusion and silences intervention (Hawkins et al. Reference Hawkins, Pepler and Craig2001; Salmivalli Reference Salmivalli2010).
At a psychological level, the underlying drive is often power and control. Perpetrators manipulate social connections in subtle ways that avoid scrutiny while undermining the target. This form of dominance thrives on ambiguity, making it difficult for authority figures to identify and challenge. Over time, silent acceptance by the peer group emboldens the bully and deepens the victim’s isolation (Swearer & Hymel Reference Swearer and Hymel2015).
Cultural narratives about femininity further complicate this dynamic. Girls are often socialised to appear kind and conflict-avoidant, which can mask aggression behind a façade of harmony. Covert tactics such as social exclusion, strategic gossip or backhanded compliments may be perceived as normal or dismissed as ‘drama’ (Underwood Reference Underwood2003; Coyne et al. Reference Coyne, Archer and Eslea2006). This trivialisation invalidates the victim’s experience and makes it harder to intervene.
Emotional manipulation also plays a significant role. Bullies may use feigned concern or moments of friendliness to disarm their target, only to undermine them in private. This push–pull behaviour creates cognitive dissonance, leading the victim to question their perception or blame themselves. Confronting the bully often results in further gaslighting – where concerns are minimised or denied – reinforcing the power imbalance and eroding the victim’s sense of agency.
Cyberbullying and online dynamics
Relational aggression increasingly extends into digital spaces, where it becomes even harder to detect or mitigate. Unlike face-to-face bullying, online interactions occur around the clock, and the anonymity or audience reach can intensify the psychological impact. Victims may face persistent harassment through social media posts, private group chats or exclusion from online communities (Li et al. Reference Li, Wang, Martin-Moratinos, Bella-Fernández and Blasco-Fontecilla2024). The always-on nature of technology can leave individuals feeling there is no escape, often resulting in heightened anxiety, poor sleep and difficulties in concentrating.
Safeguarding in these situations is complex. Digital abuse may not leave a visible trail if perpetrators delete content or use coded language. Moreover, privacy settings and encrypted platforms limit adult oversight. These challenges make early detection and intervention difficult. Healthcare professionals, educators and parents must therefore consider digital behaviour and social media use as a core part of assessing relational aggression. Encouraging open dialogue, fostering digital literacy and collaborating with online safety organisations are essential components of an effective response. Governments must also recognise cyberbullying as a public health concern and reflect this in their policies (Li et al. Reference Li, Wang, Martin-Moratinos, Bella-Fernández and Blasco-Fontecilla2024).
Risk factors and vulnerable populations
Girls with ADHD and other neurodevelopmental challenges
Although bullying can affect any individual, certain populations are especially vulnerable to the subtleties of relational aggression, including girls with neurodevelopmental disorders such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia, dyscalculia and dysgraphia (Quinn & Madhoo Reference Quinn and Madhoo2014; Heiman & Olenik-Shemesh Reference Heiman and Olenik-Shemesh2015). These conditions often present differently in girls than in boys, leading to underdiagnoses or misdiagnoses. Many of these girls exhibit fewer externalising symptoms and more internalised struggles, such as inattentiveness, social withdrawal or quiet daydreaming, which can mask the fact that they are in distress (Mikami et al. Reference Mikami, Lerner, Griggs, McGrath and Calhoun2010). Because they may struggle with interpreting social cues or managing sensory input, peers seeking social dominance can easily single them out for exclusion or use their perceived differences as ammunition for rumours. The covert nature of relational bullying can be especially damaging for these girls, as they may not recognise subtle acts of manipulation or ostracism until the situation has escalated.
An additional challenge arises when emotion regulation is impaired. Girls with ADHD, ASD or related conditions may react intensely to perceived slights or changes in their social environment, inadvertently reinforcing the bully’s narrative that they are ‘difficult’ or ‘overly sensitive’ (Quinn & Madhoo Reference Quinn and Madhoo2014). If they respond with visible distress, bullies may use these emotional outbursts as further justification for ridicule or isolation, thus perpetuating a vicious cycle. Clinicians and educators should be mindful of these dynamics when evaluating neurodiverse girls who present with anxiety, depression or somatic complaints. Recognising that bullying may underlie these emotional struggles can guide more accurate diagnosis, timely intervention and the provision of targeted coping strategies. This will ultimately reduce the risk of long-term mental health consequences.
Other at-risk groups
Beyond neurodevelopmental disorders, other categories of girls are at risk. Girls from minority ethnic backgrounds can face discrimination that blends with relational aggression to create a hostile environment. This can come across as subtle comments about their language, culture or physical appearance. Similarly, LGBTQ+ youth may be targeted through microaggressions or malicious speculation about their personal lives, further adding to their experiences of marginalisation (Kosciw et al. Reference Kosciw, Clark, Truong and Zongrone2020). Socioeconomic disadvantage can also increase vulnerability, as limited resources for extracurricular activities or social mobility may trap a girl in the same peer group, reducing the potential for developing alternative friendships (Underwood Reference Underwood2003). In each case, relational aggression exploits perceived differences to isolate the victim, deepen negative self-perceptions and prevent the formation of supportive relationships that could protect against bullying (Salmivalli Reference Salmivalli2010).
Box 1 summarises key points regarding the occurrence and emotional consequences of relational bullying.
Key learning points
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Relational bullying, while less overt than physical aggression, can inflict serious psychological damage.
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Girls with ADHD may be especially at risk owing to social communication challenges and impulsivity.
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Emotional consequences often include anxiety, depression and low self-esteem, which can persist into adulthood.
Clinical implications and identification
Presentation in healthcare and mental health settings
Girls who face persistent relational aggression may present in clinical settings with symptoms that are difficult to link directly to bullying. Healthcare professionals – including psychiatrists, paediatricians and general practitioners – are well placed to detect relational aggression during routine check-ups. Clinicians should remain alert to emotional or behavioural changes, such as heightened anxiety or low mood, which may signal hidden bullying (Espelage et al. Reference Espelage, Low and De La Rue2012). Individuals may complain of headaches, stomach-aches or difficulty sleeping, where their chronic stress is being displayed through physical symptoms (Coyne et al. Reference Coyne, Archer and Eslea2006). Fear of encountering bullies or a pervasive sense of social instability can further exacerbate these complaints. In other cases, a decline in academic performance or an abrupt withdrawal from clubs, sports or social events may flag deeper distress (Mikami et al. Reference Mikami, Lerner, Griggs, McGrath and Calhoun2010). Early identification is particularly important for girls with neurodevelopmental disorders, whose symptoms of restlessness or inattentiveness may mask underlying social distress (Quinn & Madhoo Reference Quinn and Madhoo2014; Heiman & Olenik-Shemesh Reference Heiman and Olenik-Shemesh2015).
Healthcare providers, particularly those in mental health fields, should inquire about the patient’s daily experiences and social environment. Asking open-ended questions about friendships, changes in peer groups, and social media interactions can uncover relational aggression. Bullying among girls often involves nuances like shifting group alliances or online messaging, thus the clinician must be prepared to gently probe for details that might reveal an ongoing pattern of exclusion or rumour-spreading (Coyne et al. Reference Coyne, Archer and Eslea2006). Parents may be unaware of the severity of relational bullying, especially if they have never witnessed physical altercations or direct threats (Mishna et al. Reference Mishna, Khoury-Kassabri, Gadalla and Daciuk2012). Bridging this gap requires clear communication, psychoeducation and, occasionally, direct contact with school counsellors or administrators who can corroborate what the girl is experiencing in her daily environment.
Screening tools and assessment approaches
Relational aggression, owing to its subtle nature, benefits from systematic assessment strategies. Standardised measures such as the Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale or the Peer Relations Questionnaire can be used to elicit information about the breadth and intensity of victimisation (Mynard & Joseph Reference Mynard and Joseph2000). Unlike generic measures that focus primarily on physical or verbal bullying, these tools can help identify covert tactics like rumour-spreading and exclusion.
Although such measures are valuable in structured settings, they may be impractical in brief clinical encounters. A more practical and less time-consuming approach involves scenario-based questions during clinical interviews. Instead of bluntly asking ‘Are you being bullied?’, which could elicit denial or confusion, a more productive approach might be ‘Have you noticed any shifts in how your friends treat you, or have you felt left out of events you used to be part of?’ Framing questions from the young person’s perspective reduces the risk of defensiveness or confusion, particularly when the bullying is subtle and internalised.
Emotional and psychological consequences for victims
The emotional consequences of relational bullying are extensive. Many victims experience heightened anxiety, becoming hypervigilant in social settings out of fear that any slip might invite further ridicule or exclusion (Storch & Masia-Warner Reference Storch and Masia-Warner2004). Over time, this anxiety can develop into more pronounced mental disorders, including generalised anxiety disorder or social anxiety disorder. Depression is another significant outcome, characterised by feelings of worthlessness, self-blame and isolation. This can lead victims to withdraw from supportive networks or activities they once enjoyed. This withdrawal can inadvertently exacerbate the bullying dynamic, as isolation lowers the visibility of the victim’s distress and reduces opportunities for intervention by well-intentioned adults or peers.
In severe cases, victims may exhibit self-harming behaviours, eating disorders or suicidal ideation, particularly if they believe there is no escape from the constant emotional torment. The impact of relational bullying can persist long after the immediate episodes have ceased. Adults who were bullied as adolescents sometimes report difficulties in forming trusting relationships, fear of workplace interactions that mirror school-based social hierarchies, and lingering self-doubt about their intrinsic value (Lereya et al. Reference Lereya, Copeland, Zammit and Wolke2015).
Management and intervention strategies
Individual approaches for victims
Once relational bullying is identified, targeted support for young people experiencing it is vital. Psychoeducation is a foundational step, helping the victim identify and label the bullying dynamics they are experiencing (Espelage & Holt Reference Espelage and Holt2001; Mishna et al. Reference Mishna, Khoury-Kassabri, Gadalla and Daciuk2012). This is particularly important because many girls do not immediately recognise covert acts as bullying, which, as already mentioned, can leave them feeling confused or questioning their own perceptions. Once the behaviours have been clarified, therapeutic interventions can be tailored to the victim’s needs. Cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT) can be effective by challenging negative self-beliefs, enhancing problem-solving skills and reducing reactive behaviours. Teaching assertiveness techniques helps victims set boundaries without resorting to aggression themselves.
For girls with neurodevelopmental disorders, additional interventions may address social skills training. Such training might involve recognising social cues, rehearsing appropriate responses in stressful interactions and developing emotion regulation strategies to prevent overreaction that might escalate bullying (Quinn & Madhoo Reference Quinn and Madhoo2014; Mikami et al. Reference Mikami, Smit and Khalis2017). These approaches should be paired with ongoing emotional support. Helping the victim identify mentors or friends outside the toxic peer group can be invaluable in restoring self-confidence and providing a buffer against future bullying attempts (Hodges Reference Hodges1999; Mikami et al. Reference Mikami, Lerner, Griggs, McGrath and Calhoun2010).
Addressing perpetrators
Although the victim’s well-being is paramount, ignoring the perpetrator’s motivations or mental health needs can perpetuate the cycle of bullying. Some bullies, on closer examination, exhibit problems such as low self-esteem, prior trauma or difficulty handling negative emotions (Salmivalli Reference Salmivalli2010). Interventions aimed at empathy-building can lead them to appreciate the harm they are inflicting on others. This approach is especially relevant for younger perpetrators, who may be more malleable and capable of learning constructive relationship skills.
Restorative justice strategies have gained traction in some school systems, offering a more rehabilitative angle (Wong et al. Reference Wong, Cheng, Ngan and Ma2011). These techniques encourage open dialogue between bully and victim, mediated by a counsellor or trained facilitator, with the intention of holding the bully accountable while also fostering mutual understanding. However, such approaches should be carefully managed to avoid re-traumatising the victim.
Role of families and caregivers
Caregivers play a crucial role in recognising and reducing relational bullying. When a girl reports feeling isolated or targeted by friends, parents/caregivers should respond with empathy and validation, showing the child that her concerns are taken seriously (Espelage et al. Reference Espelage, Low and De La Rue2012). This response contrasts starkly with dismissive or minimising reactions that frame the issue as mere drama or typical teenage behaviour. By establishing open communication channels, parents can stay alert to changes in their daughter’s social circles or emotional well-being (Lereya et al. Reference Lereya, Copeland, Zammit and Wolke2015).
Caregivers can also model healthy relational dynamics by managing their own interpersonal conflicts transparently and respectfully. If a child sees her parent resolving disagreements with civility and empathy rather than backhanded gossip, she is more likely to internalise these positive approaches in her own peer interactions. In situations where a parent suspects their child may be the bully, addressing the issue promptly and collaboratively with professionals can prevent escalation of harmful behaviours.
Anti-bullying policies in schools
Schools that adopt comprehensive anti-bullying policies often succeed in reducing both physical and relational aggression (Olweus Reference Olweus1993). These policies need to explicitly address covert bullying tactics such as exclusion and rumour-spreading, rather than focusing exclusively on physical aggression. Clear definitions of relational bullying, coupled with established reporting procedures and consistent consequences for bullying behaviour, empower students to come forward without fear of being dismissed. Staff training is vital, ensuring that teachers, administrators and support personnel recognise the signs of covert aggression and respond consistently. Workshops or assemblies can be conducted to educate students about bullying, emphasising the role of bystanders in either perpetuating or preventing harmful behaviours (Espelage et al. Reference Espelage, Low and De La Rue2012).
Peer-led initiatives, such as student councils or anti-bullying clubs, have proven effective in cultivating a school culture that values mutual respect (Salmivalli Reference Salmivalli2010). These groups can organise awareness campaigns, encourage anonymous reporting or facilitate mentorship programmes linking older students with younger ones. By diversifying the activities and social structures available to students, schools can also broaden the peer support networks that might protect vulnerable individuals from isolation.
Box 2 summarises good practice points for clinicians, schools and caregivers, and Boxes 3 and 4 present fictitious case vignettes exemplifying the application of these points in addressing relational bullying of two schoolgirls.
Good practice points
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Clinicians should integrate questions about peer relationships, social exclusion and online interactions into routine assessments.
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School-based or organisational collaboration can create comprehensive support systems for victims and clarify accountability for perpetrators.
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Parents and caregivers should be encouraged to maintain open dialogue, respond empathically to concerns and model healthy conflict resolution.
Case vignette: Alyssa
Alyssa, a 13-year-old diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), presents with a marked decline in academic performance and frequent complaints of stomach-aches. Her parents mention that she has been asking to stay at home from school. Further inquiry reveals that Alyssa’s once-close group of friends has been excluding her from group chats and weekend hangouts. Alyssa initially attributes this exclusion to her own behaviour, given her difficulty staying focused during conversations and her tendency to interrupt. She reports that some of the girls have started whispering and giggling when she is nearby, although she cannot recall any direct insults.
In a clinical setting, Alyssa exhibits signs of anxiety and low self-esteem. She expresses concern about appearing ‘annoying’, which she fears is driving her friends away. With gentle probing, she acknowledges feeling hurt and confused, recognising that her peers’ behaviours are not simply harmless teasing but indicative of bullying. A collaborative plan is developed, involving Alyssa’s teachers and the school counsellor, to monitor social dynamics in the classroom. Alyssa’s parents also receive guidance on promoting emotion regulation techniques at home and coaching Alyssa in reading social cues more effectively. Over time, these combined efforts help Alyssa regain a sense of control and begin rebuilding her self-confidence.
Case vignette: Sarah
Sarah, a 15-year-old previously engaged in extracurricular activities, becomes withdrawn and secretive. Her grades slip and she tells her mother she feels constant stress about rumours circulating on social media. A few girls in her grade have created a private online group dedicated to criticising and mocking Sarah, posting screenshots of her social media updates with derogatory captions. Because the bullying is largely taking place online, Sarah’s parents initially struggle to gather evidence and are unsure how to intervene. In therapy sessions, Sarah says that every time she posts something online, she worries her classmates are scrutinising it. She experiences insomnia, nightmares and reluctance to participate in class discussions.
A psychiatrist evaluates Sarah and notes symptoms consistent with social anxiety disorder, which appear to have intensified in tandem with the cyberbullying. Sarah is referred to a specialised therapist for cognitive–behavioural therapy to help her challenge negative automatic thoughts and learn coping strategies for anxiety triggers. The school is informed, leading to a meeting to which the perpetrators’ parents are also invited to discuss the seriousness of cyberbullying. Through these combined efforts, Sarah gradually regains some measure of security in her online and offline interactions, and the offending students face clear consequences under the school’s anti-bullying policy.
Adult organisational contexts
Relational bullying does not disappear once individuals leave high school. Many adults experience covert forms of aggression in workplaces or community groups (Einarsen et al. Reference Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf and Cooper2020). Microaggressions, sabotage and gossip can erode professional relationships, undermine productivity and harm mental well-being. Implementing clear workplace policies that classify relational bullying as a form of harassment ensures that employees understand the repercussions of engaging in these behaviours. Additionally, offering confidential channels for reporting workplace bullying encourages targets to seek help without fear of retaliation.
Training programmes that address communication skills and conflict resolution can reduce instances of relational bullying by creating organisational cultures that value direct, respectful feedback. Addressing possible comorbidities, such as burnout or chronic stress, is equally important. Human resources departments may work closely with management to ensure that swift, consistent action is taken when relational bullying is identified. Failure to do so can lead to toxic organisational cultures that hamper morale and job satisfaction, contributing to higher turnover rates and potential legal ramifications.
Evidence base and limitations
Although various therapeutic strategies – such as CBT, social skills training and school-based interventions – are commonly used to support victims of relational aggression, there is a lack of large-scale randomised controlled trials (RCTs) specifically targeting relational bullying among children and adolescents. Much of the existing evidence is extrapolated from broader studies on peer victimisation, internalising symptoms or social-emotional learning programmes. Although preliminary studies and case series suggest the benefit of targeted interventions for relational aggression, further research is needed to rigorously evaluate their effectiveness, particularly among vulnerable populations like neurodivergent girls.
Controversies and debates
Relational aggression among girls raises several ethical and practical questions. One major debate concerns how to balance the need to protect victims with the risk of over-penalising or stigmatising perpetrators, some of whom may be struggling with their own psychological or social challenges (Salmivalli Reference Salmivalli2010). Zero-tolerance policies can appear to send a firm message, yet critics argue that such policies do not address the root causes of bullying behaviours and might penalise individuals who attempt to defend themselves in less conventional ways (Wong et al. Reference Wong, Cheng, Ngan and Ma2011). Restorative justice models, which promote empathy and reconciliation, offer an alternative approach but may require extensive training for staff and a supportive institutional culture to be effective (Braithwaite Reference Braithwaite2002).
Another area of contention involves the role of social media companies in policing bullying online. While platforms may provide reporting mechanisms and algorithms intended to detect abusive content, the sheer volume and complexity of online interactions make it difficult to eliminate covert forms of bullying (Bauman et al. Reference Bauman, Cross and Walker2013; Kowalski et al. Reference Kowalski, Limber and McCord2019). Privacy concerns also come into play, especially if schools or parents use monitoring applications to detect harassing behaviours (Kosciw et al. Reference Kosciw, Clark, Truong and Zongrone2020). Balancing these technological interventions with respect for individual rights presents an ongoing challenge. Moreover, the continuous expansion of digital platforms means that new forms of cyberbullying may develop faster than existing policies can adapt (Espelage et al. Reference Espelage, Low and De La Rue2012; Bauman et al. Reference Bauman, Cross and Walker2013).
Finally, some interpersonal conflict is an inevitable part of growing up – and, in many cases, can be beneficial. Through everyday disagreements, young people may learn to assert themselves, set personal boundaries and manage interpersonal stress – skills essential for navigating adult relationships. These experiences can foster emotional resilience and a clearer understanding of personal values and social dynamics. From this standpoint, not every instance of exclusion or gossip necessarily warrants clinical concern. However, relational aggression differs from typical social friction in both intensity and intent. It involves repeated behaviours that aim to control, exclude or emotionally destabilise another person. This makes it qualitatively different from misunderstandings or shifting friendship dynamics. Clinicians and educators must therefore apply a nuanced lens: being careful not to pathologise normal peer conflict, while also recognising when subtle behaviours signal a deeper pattern of psychological harm. The goal is not to eliminate all conflict, but to identify and intervene in those patterns that are sustained, targeted and damaging to a young person’s mental health.
Future directions and research gaps
Research on relational bullying has gained momentum in recent years, but there remain notable gaps in understanding and intervention. Longitudinal studies could clarify the trajectory of girls who experience covert bullying, mapping out how unresolved emotional pain might crystallise into adult relational aggression or mental disorders (Kowalski et al. 2019; Einarsen et al. Reference Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf and Cooper2020). Such research might also determine which specific interventions – whether psychoeducation, social skills training or restorative justice – are most effective for different age groups and cultural contexts (Braithwaite Reference Braithwaite2002).
There is a pressing need to explore the link between relational aggression and other social phenomena, such as discrimination based on ethnicity, sexual orientation or disability. Understanding how these identities overlap with vulnerability to bullying can guide the development of targeted, inclusive prevention programmes (Heiman & Olenik-Shemesh Reference Heiman and Olenik-Shemesh2015; Kosciw et al. Reference Kosciw, Clark, Truong and Zongrone2020). Additionally, exploring the neurological and cognitive mechanisms involved in relational bullying could identify further why certain individuals gravitate towards such behaviours, potentially informing therapy approaches or policy reforms that address underlying risk factors.
Finally, adult bullying, which frequently manifests in workplaces or within social circles, merits deeper investigation. Many frameworks for bullying focus on school-aged populations, but relational aggression can persist across the lifespan. Enhanced awareness and standardised definitions would help organisations implement more consistent anti-bullying policies, ensuring that employees receive the same level of protection and acknowledgement afforded to younger populations.
MCQs
Select the single best option for each question stem
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1 Which of the following statements about relational aggression among girls is true?
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a It typically involves direct physical confrontation
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b It can manifest through gossip, rumours and social exclusion
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c It is almost always reported to teachers as soon as it occurs
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d It has fewer psychological impacts than overt bullying
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e It can be easily detected in all clinical settings.
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2 Which group is particularly vulnerable to covert bullying tactics by girls?
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a Girls who excel academically and have strong peer networks
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b Girls with neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g. ADHD)
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c Girls who are physically dominant
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d Adults in workplace settings
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e Boys who engage in overt aggression.
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3 In addressing relational aggression, which approach is considered beneficial for both victims and perpetrators?
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a Zero-tolerance policies without the possibility of dialogue
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b Ignoring the behaviour in the hope that it will resolve on its own
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c Restorative justice or empathy-building strategies
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d Allowing the bully to continue if the victim is not physically harmed
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e Providing medication to the victim for anxiety.
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4 Which of the following is a common sign that a girl may be experiencing relational bullying?
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a An unexplained increase in academic motivation
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b Regular physical altercations in the school hallway
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c Becoming overly enthusiastic about school events
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d Frequent headaches, stomach aches and social withdrawal
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e Outspokenly challenging the bully in public each day.
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5 Why is it important to consider bullying across the lifespan, rather than focusing solely on childhood?
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a Bullying completely disappears after high school graduation
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b Adult workplaces and social settings can also harbour relational aggression
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c Children do not experience relational aggression at all
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d Only adults experience mental health repercussions from bullying
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e Bullying is an issue exclusive to teenage groups.
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MCQ answers
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1 b
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2 b
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3 c
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4 d
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5 b
Data availability
Data availability is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Acknowledgement
The author made use of ChatGPT-4 in the drafting of this article. Specifically, ChatGPT-4 was used for language refinement, grammar checking and reference organisation to improve clarity and coherence. However, all intellectual content, critical analysis and final edits were conducted by the author, ensuring the accuracy, integrity and originality of the work. AI-generated content was carefully reviewed, edited and verified to comply with ethical and academic standards.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of interest
None.
eLetters
No eLetters have been published for this article.