P.’s authoritative study sets new standards for methodological approaches for the analysis of geographically-specific regions. The fundamental aim of the work is to explore and challenge entrenched perceptions of the Isthmus and the surrounding area from the Late Archaic to the Late Roman periods. In doing so, P. presents a complex diachronic study that successfully integrates archaeological, epigraphic and topographic evidence along with ancient literary sources and eighteenth- and nineteenth-century travellers’ accounts. These aspects are teased out within a framework that P. creates from the intrinsic features of the Isthmus area such as the roads, harbours, canal and Diolkos. Key to the success of this is P.’s decades-long association with the area, and much of the discussion he notes is based on evidence from and formulated through his experience on the Eastern Korinthia Survey (1999–2003).
The introduction establishes the methodology used throughout. While discussing the topography of the region, and using Strabo's description of the Isthmus as a conceptual bridge between old and new, key ideas about the nature of Corinth's past as a Greek polis and Roman colony are presented. In establishing the research framework, the introduction sets up the battle cry for challenging long-held assumptions and behaviourist approaches. Original analysis through the volume contests the nineteenth-century determinist premise of the Isthmus as fundamental to Corinth's success, which P. notes has underpinned so much of contemporary scholarship. Furthermore, archaeologists played their part in entrenching the view by using ‘material culture to ground-truth an essential vision of maritime connectivity’ (p. 10).
The book is organised to problematise a number of key features in the landscape (not necessarily natural): the Isthmus, Gate, Fetter, Portage, Bridge, Centre and District. Although the chapters are thematic, they are arranged in chronological order with a focus on a particular period in each: for instance, ‘The Fetter’ focuses on Roman involvement in the Isthmus area. This enables some selectiveness without losing the overall value of the diachronic view, which is never lost. Key sources such as Thucydides, Polybius, Strabo and Philostratus are prioritised within each thematic and chronological focus. This enables P. to interweave literary evidence to highlight changes: the redefinition of the Isthmus after the Roman conquest and later Christianisation.
Some minor issues arise as a result of the organisation, one being that repetition is difficult to avoid. For example, that the Sanctuary of Poseidon was at the centre in the Classical and the Early Hellenistic periods is often noted, and the discussion of Roman destruction is a little overdramatised with ‘the horrific fate of Greece’ (p. 100), ‘Roman devastation’ (p. 102) and Mummius ‘horrifically razed Corinth’ (p. 109). However, P. does go on to rightfully stress the archaeological data, which indicates a less pervasive destruction than literary data. Thorny issues such as Romanisation are glossed over, and the term ‘networks’ is used but often without any clear academic definition of it.
The main discussion begins with ‘The Isthmus’ in which travellers’ descriptions are interweaved with topography and geology. These writers emphasised centrality and connectivity and, importantly, the region's natural resources. As P. notes in ‘The Gate’, these sources echoed the Roman views which were based on the end result of a millennium of development in the region. Greek views stressed a more focused view of the Isthmus with the sanctuary of Poseidon as central to the region's success. P. highlights a Roman view of Corinth and the Sanctuary of Poseidon as poles which helped to establish east–west travel, which was also intertwined with the development of Lechaion and Kenchreai harbours. The lines of movement were further consolidated by cemeteries, quarries and settlements. Thus the built environment was a feature that changed over time, helping to meld the various views of the region.
Individual chapters detail the history of misconceptions and outline more credible interpretations. For example, notions of portaging were propagated by nineteenth-century scholars, who based their ideas on a few specific examples mentioned by Polybius and Livy and some general allusions to it in Aristophanes and Pliny the Elder. In ‘The Portage’, P. develops his earlier work (‘The diolkos of Corinth’, AJA 115 [2011], 549–74) noting the practicalities and economic cost of portaging that had been overlooked. Indeed, there were particular cases, such as that of the Roman Proconsul Marcus Antonius, who portaged a fleet of ships across the Isthmus to face Cilician pirates in 102 b.c.e. Historians reasoned that, if they were able to do it for military purposes, they would do it for commercial purposes too. However, the costs of off-loading and re-loading would most certainly have outweighed the benefit in terms of time. Instead, archaeological data across the Isthmus, particularly survey, indicates the use of short-distance trade for everyday items and some exotica, which may have been too precious to risk the treacherous journey around Cape Malea.
The issue of changing perceptions of what the Isthmus meant in terms of territory and its relationship with Corinth are the focus in ‘The Bridge’. Thucydides saw the Isthmus as the narrow neck of land with a market at Isthmia, while Strabo viewed it as the broad expanse of the Corinthia. Nero's failed attempt to construct the canal and its lasting impact are discussed in the first- and second-century focus of ‘The Centre’, while settlement patterns in the third and fourth century are emphasised in ‘The District’. Details of medium distance and regional trade are also discussed, and the diachronic view of finewares and lamp imports reveals the extensive network connections that the region had and in turn the importance of the place. During the Diocletian period, the Isthmus is shown on the Peutinger map as being large and central. The origins of imports are always diverse with fluctuations from western foci in the first century to the east and the Aegean in the second century and back to the west in the third century. By incorporating the EKAS data where possible, P. builds on K. Slane's earlier work (‘East-West Trade in Fineware and Commodities. The View from Corinth’, RCRFActa 36 [2000], 299–312), which was more urban and excavation focused.
P. goes some way to correcting assumptions of decline in the third century. Although the difficulties of distinguishing type sherds into tight chronologies for the third, fourth and fifth centuries are noted and indeed are a common issue for survey material, P. offers a good overview of the periods. Excavation data shows that the Poseidon sanctuary and games seem to have gone out of use by the middle of the third century with the theatre and temples in disrepair. Moreover, survey data shows that while disruptions in the third century may have had some impact, overall, it seems there is good evidence for continuity of settlement pattern and land division.
An analysis of the sources pertaining to the third and fourth centuries shows how the old image of Corinth with its glorious, but less than salubrious, history was re-cast as a Christian victory over the vices of the polytheistic past. The new image of Corinth eventually side-lined the importance of the Isthmian landscape. This point is also supported by the lack of churches built around Isthmia, while Corinth, Lechaion and Kenchreai all feature significant churches from the fifth century. Instead, the construction of the Hexamilion wall and towers and fortress dating to the first half of the fifth century dominates building at Isthmia at this time. As P. notes, this was a very visible and effective means of controlling the flow of traffic for the first time since the Hellenistic period.
While the illustrations are in abundance, some could have been larger; plans and maps in particular are sometimes small and difficult to read. This is an expertly written work that pulls together research and analysis from a number of influential scholars working on Corinth, Isthmia Kenchreai and Lechaion. The EKAS data is interwoven to complete the picture; in many respects it is a model way to utilise survey data as long as the survey is published in detail too. Just as P. talks about the Isthmus as a bridge, this work bridges old and new data, ancient sources and modern sources together with archaeology and topography.
