Frank, 62, has been working at the same company for the past 32 years. His strong work ethic, subject-matter expertise, and continued excellent performance have saved him from several waves of layoffs and restructuring. Over the years Frank has become cynical. Gradually, many of Frank’s close colleagues were let go, and he has had difficulty connecting with newer employees. Although he is not particularly happy at his job, Frank is determined to continue working for his employer until at least 66, which is when he can start collecting Social Security benefits without penalty.
By Kooij et al.’s (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) definition, Frank is successfully aging at work. He is a competent employee who has the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to excel at his job. With regard to motivation, he is a hard worker, and he is motivated to continue working until at least normal retirement age. But is Frank thriving at work? His cynicism suggests that he is not. Thriving is characterized by vitality and learning (Porath et al., Reference Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson and Garnett2012). Because thriving indicates that an individual not only successfully engages in self-regulation through the acquisition of new knowledge and development of new skills, but also experiences a “zest for work” (Porath et al., Reference Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson and Garnett2012, p. 251), thriving is a sufficient but unnecessary condition for successful aging at work as defined by Kooij and colleagues. Thriving at work underscores the significance of employee health and well-being.
Considering that a competent and hard-working older employee who is committed to continue working yet is apathetic about—or, in Frank’s case, has negative attitudes toward—their job would be deemed successfully aging at work, I contend that what Kooij et al. (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) call “successful aging at work” is more accurately described as “successfully working while aging” (i.e., maintaining optimal job performance and striving to continue working while aging). I believe that the focal article’s model could be improved by formally incorporating older workers’ psychological well-being into its definition of successful aging at work.
Conceptualizing psychological well-being: not just happiness or job satisfaction
How should psychological well-being be conceptualized? Some scholars have conceptualized it as happiness, satisfaction, or the presence of positive emotions coinciding with an absence of (or fewer) negative emotions (e.g., Diener, Reference Diener1984). In industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, this conceptualization manifests itself in the happy-productive worker hypothesis (i.e., “happy employees exhibit higher levels of job-related performance behaviors than do unhappy employees”; Cropanzano & Wright, Reference Cropanzano and Wright2001, p. 182). Findings from several empirical studies are consistent with the hypothesis (e.g., Staw & Barsade, Reference Staw and Barsade1993; Taris & Schreurs, Reference Taris and Schreurs2009). But psychological well-being may be more than just happiness, experiencing few negative emotions, or job satisfaction.
According to Seligman (Reference Seligman2011), psychological well-being comprises not only positive emotions (which subsume happiness and related constructs) but also engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (PERMA)—all of which are purportedly pursued as ends in themselves. Applied to the workplace, psychological well-being, in the context of the PERMA framework, looks like the following: frequently experiencing positive emotions (e.g., gratitude, pride; see Hu & Kaplan, Reference Hu and Kaplan2015) on the job; being energized by, absorbed in, and dedicated to one’s work (see, e. g., Demerouti et al., Reference Demerouti, Bakker, de Jonge, Janssen and Schaufeli2001); having positive relationships with one’s supervisor and coworkers (see, e. g., Colbert et al., Reference Colbert, Bono and Purvanova2016); perceiving that one’s work is meaningful (see, e. g., Dik et al., Reference Dik, Byrne and Steger2013); and successfully accomplishing work-related goals and fulfilling work-related responsibilities (see, e. g., Van den Broeck et al., Reference Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, Soenens and Lens2010). Although PERMA research is still in its infancy (Seligman, Reference Seligman2018), there is preliminary evidence that suggests this expanded conceptualization of psychological well-being is indeed applicable to an individual’s experience at work (e.g., Watanabe et al., Reference Watanabe, Kawakami, Shiotani, Adachi, Matsumoto, Imamura, Yamagami, Fusejima, Muraoka, Kagami, Shimazu and Kern2018).
Older workers’ psychological well-being is important
Kooij et al. (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) discussed the importance of self-regulation behavior in the pursuit of enhancing person–environment (P–E) fit to facilitate the maintenance or recovery of job-related knowledge, skills, abilities, and motivation to continue successfully working. In the context of PERMA, those who are successfully aging at work should experience accomplishment, because their self-regulation behaviors lead to P–E fit (and, ultimately, enhanced job performance), and work engagement, which is predictive of retirement among older workers (e.g., de Wind et al., Reference De Wind, Leijten, Hoekstra, Geuskens, Burford and van der Beek2017). Thus, these two facets of psychological well-being are implied in Kooij and colleagues’ model of successful aging at work, but what about the other PERMA dimensions?
Kooij et al. (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) mentioned emotions, positive relationships, and meaning—but did so only in passing (viz., self-regulation of emotions, managers’ role in supporting older workers and effecting a climate for age diversity, finding new meaning in work as a form of goal disengagement). Prior research has demonstrated that these dimensions of psychological well-being are especially important later in life. Experiencing positive emotions is linked to decreased morbidity and improved health later in life, and it may ameliorate the deleterious physiological effects stressors have on older adults (Ong, Reference Ong2010). In the workplace, positive emotions serve as personal resources that enable workers to cope with job demands (Fredrickson, Reference Fredrickson2000), and they may equip older workers with the capacity to persevere—even in situations that invoke stereotype threat (e.g., fast-paced work environments that make the stereotype of job performance declining with age—see Posthuma & Campion, Reference Posthuma and Campion2009—salient).
Additionally, loneliness later in life is positively associated with feelings of helplessness and negatively associated with seeking emotional support (Hawkley & Cacioppo, Reference Hawkley and Cacioppo2007). In this commentary’s opening scenario, Frank’s cynicism might be, in part, attributable to losing valued, positive work relationships as a result of his organization downsizing and his difficulty establishing relationships with his new coworkers. Indeed, social support at work has been identified as an important predictor of burnout (Halbesleben, Reference Halbesleben2006). Also, engaging in meaningful work is especially important to older workers, who are driven more by intrinsic motives (e.g. opportunities to develop younger generations) rather than extrinsic motives (e.g., career advancement; Kooij et al., Reference Kooij, Tims, Kanfer, Bal, Kooij and Rousseau2015). Moreover, findings from a recent meta-analysis suggest that meaningful work is strongly related to job attitudes and moderately related to turnover intentions and more general outcomes, such as life satisfaction and general health (Allan et al., Reference Allan, Batz-Barbarich, Sterling and Tay2019).
Concluding remarks
I recommend revising the definition of successful aging at work to include not only the maintenance or recovery of job-related knowledge, skills, and abilities and the motivation to continue working but also psychological well-being. This view is consistent with the recommendation that I-O psychology adopt more humanistic ideals (Lefkowitz, Reference Lefkowitz2019). In addition to evaluating whether older workers are able to competently perform their jobs, we should care about whether they experience positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Recently, researchers have begun to develop measures of work-related PERMA (e.g., Kern, Reference Kern2014; Kun et al., Reference Kun, Balogh and Krasz2017) and PERMA interventions for employees (e.g., Neumeier et al., Reference Neumeier, Brook, Ditchburn and Sckopke2017). Even before psychometrically sound measures of PERMA are made available, it would be, from the perspective of diversity, equity, inclusion, and occupational health, prudent of organizations and I-O psychologists to prioritize older workers’ psychological well-being as much as their productivity—especially if we expect these workers to remain longer in the workforce.
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Frank, 62, has been working at the same company for the past 32 years. His strong work ethic, subject-matter expertise, and continued excellent performance have saved him from several waves of layoffs and restructuring. Over the years Frank has become cynical. Gradually, many of Frank’s close colleagues were let go, and he has had difficulty connecting with newer employees. Although he is not particularly happy at his job, Frank is determined to continue working for his employer until at least 66, which is when he can start collecting Social Security benefits without penalty.
By Kooij et al.’s (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) definition, Frank is successfully aging at work. He is a competent employee who has the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to excel at his job. With regard to motivation, he is a hard worker, and he is motivated to continue working until at least normal retirement age. But is Frank thriving at work? His cynicism suggests that he is not. Thriving is characterized by vitality and learning (Porath et al., Reference Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson and Garnett2012). Because thriving indicates that an individual not only successfully engages in self-regulation through the acquisition of new knowledge and development of new skills, but also experiences a “zest for work” (Porath et al., Reference Porath, Spreitzer, Gibson and Garnett2012, p. 251), thriving is a sufficient but unnecessary condition for successful aging at work as defined by Kooij and colleagues. Thriving at work underscores the significance of employee health and well-being.
Considering that a competent and hard-working older employee who is committed to continue working yet is apathetic about—or, in Frank’s case, has negative attitudes toward—their job would be deemed successfully aging at work, I contend that what Kooij et al. (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) call “successful aging at work” is more accurately described as “successfully working while aging” (i.e., maintaining optimal job performance and striving to continue working while aging). I believe that the focal article’s model could be improved by formally incorporating older workers’ psychological well-being into its definition of successful aging at work.
Conceptualizing psychological well-being: not just happiness or job satisfaction
How should psychological well-being be conceptualized? Some scholars have conceptualized it as happiness, satisfaction, or the presence of positive emotions coinciding with an absence of (or fewer) negative emotions (e.g., Diener, Reference Diener1984). In industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, this conceptualization manifests itself in the happy-productive worker hypothesis (i.e., “happy employees exhibit higher levels of job-related performance behaviors than do unhappy employees”; Cropanzano & Wright, Reference Cropanzano and Wright2001, p. 182). Findings from several empirical studies are consistent with the hypothesis (e.g., Staw & Barsade, Reference Staw and Barsade1993; Taris & Schreurs, Reference Taris and Schreurs2009). But psychological well-being may be more than just happiness, experiencing few negative emotions, or job satisfaction.
According to Seligman (Reference Seligman2011), psychological well-being comprises not only positive emotions (which subsume happiness and related constructs) but also engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (PERMA)—all of which are purportedly pursued as ends in themselves. Applied to the workplace, psychological well-being, in the context of the PERMA framework, looks like the following: frequently experiencing positive emotions (e.g., gratitude, pride; see Hu & Kaplan, Reference Hu and Kaplan2015) on the job; being energized by, absorbed in, and dedicated to one’s work (see, e. g., Demerouti et al., Reference Demerouti, Bakker, de Jonge, Janssen and Schaufeli2001); having positive relationships with one’s supervisor and coworkers (see, e. g., Colbert et al., Reference Colbert, Bono and Purvanova2016); perceiving that one’s work is meaningful (see, e. g., Dik et al., Reference Dik, Byrne and Steger2013); and successfully accomplishing work-related goals and fulfilling work-related responsibilities (see, e. g., Van den Broeck et al., Reference Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, Soenens and Lens2010). Although PERMA research is still in its infancy (Seligman, Reference Seligman2018), there is preliminary evidence that suggests this expanded conceptualization of psychological well-being is indeed applicable to an individual’s experience at work (e.g., Watanabe et al., Reference Watanabe, Kawakami, Shiotani, Adachi, Matsumoto, Imamura, Yamagami, Fusejima, Muraoka, Kagami, Shimazu and Kern2018).
Older workers’ psychological well-being is important
Kooij et al. (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) discussed the importance of self-regulation behavior in the pursuit of enhancing person–environment (P–E) fit to facilitate the maintenance or recovery of job-related knowledge, skills, abilities, and motivation to continue successfully working. In the context of PERMA, those who are successfully aging at work should experience accomplishment, because their self-regulation behaviors lead to P–E fit (and, ultimately, enhanced job performance), and work engagement, which is predictive of retirement among older workers (e.g., de Wind et al., Reference De Wind, Leijten, Hoekstra, Geuskens, Burford and van der Beek2017). Thus, these two facets of psychological well-being are implied in Kooij and colleagues’ model of successful aging at work, but what about the other PERMA dimensions?
Kooij et al. (Reference Kooij, Zacher, Wang and Heckhausen2020) mentioned emotions, positive relationships, and meaning—but did so only in passing (viz., self-regulation of emotions, managers’ role in supporting older workers and effecting a climate for age diversity, finding new meaning in work as a form of goal disengagement). Prior research has demonstrated that these dimensions of psychological well-being are especially important later in life. Experiencing positive emotions is linked to decreased morbidity and improved health later in life, and it may ameliorate the deleterious physiological effects stressors have on older adults (Ong, Reference Ong2010). In the workplace, positive emotions serve as personal resources that enable workers to cope with job demands (Fredrickson, Reference Fredrickson2000), and they may equip older workers with the capacity to persevere—even in situations that invoke stereotype threat (e.g., fast-paced work environments that make the stereotype of job performance declining with age—see Posthuma & Campion, Reference Posthuma and Campion2009—salient).
Additionally, loneliness later in life is positively associated with feelings of helplessness and negatively associated with seeking emotional support (Hawkley & Cacioppo, Reference Hawkley and Cacioppo2007). In this commentary’s opening scenario, Frank’s cynicism might be, in part, attributable to losing valued, positive work relationships as a result of his organization downsizing and his difficulty establishing relationships with his new coworkers. Indeed, social support at work has been identified as an important predictor of burnout (Halbesleben, Reference Halbesleben2006). Also, engaging in meaningful work is especially important to older workers, who are driven more by intrinsic motives (e.g. opportunities to develop younger generations) rather than extrinsic motives (e.g., career advancement; Kooij et al., Reference Kooij, Tims, Kanfer, Bal, Kooij and Rousseau2015). Moreover, findings from a recent meta-analysis suggest that meaningful work is strongly related to job attitudes and moderately related to turnover intentions and more general outcomes, such as life satisfaction and general health (Allan et al., Reference Allan, Batz-Barbarich, Sterling and Tay2019).
Concluding remarks
I recommend revising the definition of successful aging at work to include not only the maintenance or recovery of job-related knowledge, skills, and abilities and the motivation to continue working but also psychological well-being. This view is consistent with the recommendation that I-O psychology adopt more humanistic ideals (Lefkowitz, Reference Lefkowitz2019). In addition to evaluating whether older workers are able to competently perform their jobs, we should care about whether they experience positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Recently, researchers have begun to develop measures of work-related PERMA (e.g., Kern, Reference Kern2014; Kun et al., Reference Kun, Balogh and Krasz2017) and PERMA interventions for employees (e.g., Neumeier et al., Reference Neumeier, Brook, Ditchburn and Sckopke2017). Even before psychometrically sound measures of PERMA are made available, it would be, from the perspective of diversity, equity, inclusion, and occupational health, prudent of organizations and I-O psychologists to prioritize older workers’ psychological well-being as much as their productivity—especially if we expect these workers to remain longer in the workforce.