Introduction
Bangladesh is an agricultural based densely populated country. About 71% of the population lives in rural areas (BBS, Reference BBS (BANGLADESH BUREAU OF STATISTICS)2010a). The average per capita income is only US$751 (BBS, Reference BBS (BANGLADESH BUREAU OF STATISTICS)2010b). The majority of people are engaged in agricultural operations, particularly crops, fish and livestock, of which both native and exotic poultry are now mainstream. Approximately 20% of the protein consumed in developing countries comes from poultry meat and eggs (Alders and Pym, Reference ALDERS and PYM2009). ‘Family poultry’ (FP) is a well accepted term of global importance which is receiving increased attention from scientists because of its contribution to animal protein supply in low income, food deficient countries (LIFDC). The conventional term ‘rural poultry’, according to Sonaiya (Reference SONAIYA2007), refers to rural birds raised extensively or semi-intensively in relatively small numbers (usually less than 100 at time), irrespective of genetic group, and may be improved or unimproved (productive or low productive) involving minimal investment. Most of the inputs including labour are supplied from the homestead and production is either consumed at home or sold locally for cash income or utilized for both purposes. The characteristics of such rural poultry holds true for FP as well, except that the latter is not location-bound, and therefore includes small flocks of poultry raised in semi-urban and urban areas. This definition for FP was adopted by the International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD) in 1997 as a superior term to the previously used descriptor ‘rural poultry’.
Family poultry production in Bangladesh comprises the production of free range scavenging chickens and ducks of indigenous origin with or without feed supplementation, various crossbreeds, particularly F1 of Rhode Island Red male X Fayoumi female and small-scale commercial broilers, cockerels from layer strains and commercial layers reared in confinement and provided commercial feeds. This paper reviews the current status of such a FP production system, examines the way it is practiced and identifies its constraints and future prospects in Bangladesh. Finally, the paper concludes whether such a production system is worthwhile or an aimless practise for a developing country like Bangladesh.
The current status of family poultry production in Bangladesh
Before determining whether or not FP production in Bangladesh is meaningful, it is necessary to review the current status of such a production system. This is particularly important at the present time since commercial poultry farming with high yielding strains of chicken is in operation in the country in spite of the challenges that are appearing from time to time.
free range scavenging poultry production
Free range scavenging poultry are mostly indigenous or native birds reared by farmers in small numbers in their households under traditional management systems. Among the poultry species, chickens are the principal one, followed by ducks and a small number of pigeons, geese and quail. Poor farmers, who are not able to keep larger animals, can easily maintain a small flock of chickens or ducks within their homestead premises. Each rural family usually keeps less than 20 chickens, ducks or pigeons, either singly or in combination. The birds are reared traditionally and female members of the family usually take care of them by feeding household waste and crop residues (Saleque, Reference SALEQUE2001; Rahman, Reference RAHMAN2003), in addition to natural feeds (green grasses, weeds, insects, small snails, earthworms, residual grains, kitchen waste etc.) that the birds obtain through scavenging. The main feature of this production system is the low input requirement as well as the low output, however it is still considered to be very important to the rural economy.
Several types of indigenous chickens exist, of which Hilly, Naked Neck, Aseel, Yasine, native dwarf, frizzled plumage and common native birds of non-idiosyncratic typical type have been recorded so far (Das et al., Reference DAS, CHOWDHURY, KHATUN, NISHIBORI, ISOBE and YOSHIMURA2008). In general, they are dependent on scavenging feed resources; they thrive under harsh nutritional and environmental conditions and are resistant to common resident diseases. Light weight native chickens of varying colour are commonly available in the rural households of farmers. The birds may differ in size, shape and production levels. Each bird produces a maximum of 1.5kg of meat and a female usually lays 35-40 eggs per year (Barua and Howlider, Reference BARUA and HOWLIDER1990; Barua and Yoshimura, Reference BARUA and YOSHIMURA1997; Islam et al., Reference ISLAM, HUQUE, SALAUDDIN and SARKER2003). Average egg mass is very low, approximately 35 g/egg, and fertility mostly suffers due to an unsuitable male to female ratio. The females become broody after laying a clutch of eggs for incubating and subsequently take responsibility of brooding and caring of hatched out chicks. All these activities, unlike high yielding commercial strains, limit their production potential (Sarkar and Bell, Reference SARKAR and BELL2006). Reports also indicate that the feeds the birds scavenge are deficient in energy and protein but high in fibre (Biswas et al., Reference BISWAS, CHOWDHURY, MUSTAFA and BELL2005), a key reason for their low productivity. Sonaiya (Reference SONAIYA1995) was of the opinion that the productivity of scavenging chickens could be improved by interventions in management systems and the quality and quantity of feed on offer.
A study on the impact of Smallholder Livestock Development Project (SLDP) in the rural community of Bangladesh revealed that the overall socioeconomic conditions of beneficiaries, their egg and meat consumption capability, empowerment of rural women in decision making issues and employment opportunities were significantly increased after the intervention of the project (Alam, Reference ALAM1997). Separation of chicks from broody hens at an early age, supplementation of a balanced diet to broody hens for rapid weight gain to start the next clutch quickly and creep feeding of chicks in confinement are examples of some common interventions used to increase the overall production potential of native (desi) hens and reduce chick mortality (Moreki et al., Reference MOREKI, PETHERHAM and TYLER1997; Sarkar et al., Reference SARKAR, MUSTAFA and BELL2005; Sarkar and Bell, Reference SARKAR and BELL2006). The growth performance of native chickens may be improved significantly if they are reared in confinement with improved feeds (Chowdhury et al., Reference CHOWDHURY, AHMED and HAMID2006). However, Sarkar and Bell (Reference SARKAR and BELL2006) commented that the egg production of native (desi) chicken layers could more than double if some changes were made to husbandry practices. From their economic analysis of improved management systems, Sarkar and Golam (Reference SARKAR and GOLAM2009) concluded that management and dietary interventions of native chickens appear to be effective tools for increasing productivity and profitability to a point where such systems could be considered economically viable and a sustainable enterprise for rural households in Bangladesh.
Following chickens, ducks occupy second ranking in FP production in Bangladesh. Unlike chickens, the free range native ducks are mostly concentrated in low-lying areas of the country. These areas are situated in the north and north-eastern districts where a large number of bodies of water are present, and in the coastal areas of southern Bangladesh where rivers, canals, marshy lands, road-side ditches, ponds and other water reservoirs are abundantly available; serving as natural feed resources for scavenging. Usually less than 10 ducks are reared at a time. The native duck constitutes 90% of the total duck population except in areas where scientific intervention involving the distribution of high yielding stocks has been made. Among the native ducks, two distinct varieties, Blacks and Whites are believed to be the better producers. Other breeds that have become FP flocks are Nageswari, Muscovy, Pekin, Sylhet Mete, Jinding, Khaki Campbell and Indian Runner. However, except for Jinding, all are very limited in number. There are 45.11 million ducks in Bangladesh (BER, Reference BER (BANGLADESH ECONOMIC REVIEW)2012), mostly of indigenous or native type. Indigenous ducks weigh about 1.7 kg at 20 weeks of age in confinement if feeding is improved (Hamid et al., Reference HAMID, CHOWDHURY and CHOWDHURY1988). Recent studies with native ducks in the coastal areas of Bangladesh have shown that birds attained maturity close to 26 weeks of age and annual production averaged 77 eggs per bird (Rahman et al., Reference RAHMAN, KHAN, CHOWDHURY and AKBAR2009), approximately double that of native chickens. Egg weight averaged 59 g and hatchability of fertile eggs was 79%. In many areas, male birds of nearly one year of age are preferred for meat purposes, particularly in winter. Unlike chickens, efforts to improve the productivity of native ducks are not so extensive. The development of a cost-effective feeding technology for improved productivity of native ducks in coastal areas is nearing completion with the assistance of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (Chowdhury, Reference CHOWDHURY2009). The target group of the project is the FP producers who are already involved in duck rearing without any scientific intervention.
production of cross-bred (rhode island red male x fayoumi female) sonali chickens
During the 1990s, a bird was developed in Bangladesh by crossing Rhode Island Red males and Fayoumi females with a DANIDA-assisted development project named Participatory Livestock Development Project (PLDP). This was known as the ‘Bangladesh Poultry Model.’ A few NGOs were involved in this project. The first generation crossbred, locally known as Sonali, was distributed to enthusiastic village poultry keepers in small numbers with the objective of producing more meat and eggs than the native chickens, with the aim to generate income and reduce poverty. The birds were usually fed the commercial feeds manufactured for high yielding strains. The egg laying performance of Sonali was reported to be 156 eggs per hen per year under semi-scavenging systems of rearing (Rahman et al., Reference RAHMAN, SORENSEN, JENSEN and DOLBERG1997). In an attempt to establish the nutrient requirements of such growing birds, Dhar et al. (Reference DHAR, CHOWDHURY, ALI, KHAN and PRAMANIK2007) found that the birds attained 1.18 kg body weight at 20 weeks under semi-scavenging systems of rearing when metabolisable energy, protein, calcium, total phosphorus, lysine and methionine contents in the supplemented diets were 2950 kcal, 160, 11, 12.5, 5.4 and 3.4 g/kg, respectively. Riise et al. (Reference RIISE, PERMIN and KRYGER2005) stated that there was no evidence that women achieved higher incomes through the use of crossbred Sonali birds, but the women, however, sustained a basic income from such a small flock of birds. Consequently, the repetition of such a model in other developing countries faces new challenges, and modalities of the model have created controversies in the international arena (Sarkar et al., Reference SARKAR, MUSTAFA and BELL2005). Only a few government poultry farms are now maintaining RIR and Fayoumi parents to produce crossbreeds and sell one day-old chicks to interested farmers at cheaper rates. Some farmers are involved in growing them up to target weights with a view to marketing them as meat birds. These are popular to consumers as they resemble common native chickens with regard to size, shape and colour. From a study on productivity and profitability, Sarkar et al. (Reference SARKAR, CHOWDHURY, KABIR and SARKER2008) concluded that crossbred Sonali birds were most profitable (BDT 8.43/kg) when they attained a body weight of 850 g in 63 days. Of course, the data for such a conclusion is based on a small flock of 72 birds which is within the limit for the family poultry concept.
cockerel production from layer strains
Cockerels constitute nearly 50% of the layer chicks produced from commercial hatcheries. These are not killed in the hatcheries; rather they are sold to interested farmers at a cheaper rate (currently BDT 15 approximately per bird). Many consumers prefer cockerel to native chickens, although the former is not as fleshy but, because of the cost, they are often utilised in festivals such as wedding ceremonies. The utilisation of cockerels in small holder FP farming helps control environment pollution, improves nutrition, and generates self-employment and income in the rural community. Huque et al. (Reference HUQUE, MOSTARI and ISLAM2005) observed that cockerels belonging to the Shaver 579 strain attained approximately 750 g body weight in 56 days by consuming 1830 g of feed, while Sarkar et al. (Reference SARKAR, CHOWDHURY, KABIR and SARKER2008) found the same strain attained approximately 885 g body weight during the same period by consuming 1883 g of feed. Roy et al. (Reference ROY, CHOWDHURY, SULTANA, MOSHAD and HASAN2006) reported the same strain attained 788 g in 53 days where the total feed intake was 1848 g. It therefore appears that cockerels may achieve 750-885 g body weight during 53-56 days at the expense of 1830-1880 g of feed approximately. The profitability per kg live bird was BDT 13.40 in 2006 (Roy et al., Reference ROY, CHOWDHURY, SULTANA, MOSHAD and HASAN2006) and because of higher sale prices, it increased to BDT 21.78 in 2008 (Sarkar et al., Reference SARKAR, CHOWDHURY, KABIR and SARKER2008). However, like Sonali chickens, all the studies with cockerels involve small flocks of FP.
commercial broiler and egg production
The results of poultry sector studies and baseline surveys conducted by Chand et al. (Reference CHAND, CHOWDHURY, SAHA and HOSSAIN2009) indicate that the total number of small (up to 3000 birds per flock) and medium (3000 to 20,000 birds per flock) commercial farms across the country is about 110,000. According to information received from the National Committee for Protection of Poultry Industry in Bangladesh, this figure came down to 75,000 in March 2011 due to the outbreak of avian influenza for the second time in the country. Although farms belonging to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) were previously concentrated in and around the Dhaka and Gazipur districts, these are now spread all over the country. Having their day-old chick (DOC) supply from the hatcheries through middlemen (dealers and agents), the SMEs are producing bulk commercial broilers and eggs. The farmers belonging to SMEs are mostly involved in broiler production (90%) having credits either from middlemen/dealers and agents or NGOs/other organizations. Of course, credits from commercial banks, particularly during post avian influenza outbreak period, have become limited. Previous report indicated that about 50% of commercial farms had flock sizes of between 100 and 500 birds (BRAC, Reference BRAC (BANGLADESH RURAL ADVANCEMENT COMMITTEE)2005). Nowadays, broiler or layer flocks of 100 birds or less are seldom found among commercial farmers. Since such high yielding strains of chicken are to be reared in total confinement employing improved technology, it has become difficult for FP keepers to ensure profit margin with a very small flock of poultry. The cost-benefit ratio is widened as the flock size is increased (Kawsar et al., Reference KAWSAR, CHOWDHURY, ISLAM, RAHA, HOSSAIN and HUQUE2011). Since production cost is relatively higher in farms with small flocks, profit margin is reduced and if there is faults in controlling other factors, then this becomes a losing concern. Kawsar et al. (Reference KAWSAR, CHOWDHURY, ISLAM, RAHA, HOSSAIN and HUQUE2011) found that small broiler farms ranging from 100 to 300 birds were a losing concern for farmers’ households when management interventions were not made. Referring to a flock size of 100 birds or less for FP production, it would probably be unwise to consider commercial broiler and layer production from an economic point of view. Chowdhury (Reference CHOWDHURY2011) suggested a flock size of at least 3000 for commercial broilers and 1000 birds for that of layers for SMEs which go outside the FP production system according to the definition adopted by INFPD in 1997.
Genetic dilution of FP
Although the native chicken of Bangladesh vary in size, shape, colour and production, after determining the gene constitution Okada et al. (Reference OKADA, MAEDA, HASHIGUCHI, HASNATH, FARUQUE and MAJID1988) termed this chicken as one breed or population. Because of both inherent characteristics and poor environmental conditions, they are low producers in terms of meat and eggs. This has left an opportunity for government planners, donor funded projects and national and international organizations to explore genetic manipulation. A number of attempts have been made in the past to improve their production potential by crossbreeding and upgrading them with other famous breeds and varieties. Crossbred cockerels produced from RIR male and White Leghorn female were distributed for crossing with native females following the removal of native cocks/cockerels from the project area. This has resulted in the introduction of improved genetics in the native stock and, when improved care and management was provided, a higher number of eggs and more meat was produced with less mortality. Unfortunately, such developments were not sustainable following the termination of the project. Random mating of these improved birds with original native stocks resulted in a genetic dilution of the latter.
Recently the Sonali chicken was developed for distribution to the farmer, as already mentioned, which, in many cases, have been mixed with native stock. According to Biswas et al. (Reference BISWAS, BISWAS and BHUYIAN2007), the distribution of improved breeds among backyard poultry growers has facilitated the random mating of desi chickens, and thus genetic dilutions over time have occurred. Although the production of crossbreeds to augment productivity was not sustainable due to institutional weaknesses, the dilution of the original native stock has occurred in some areas of the country, which represents a threat to preservation, conservation and future genetic improvements of the original stock. This is also true for native duck populations. The breeds or varieties that have diluted native ducks in some areas are the Khaki Campbell, Indian Runner and Jinding. Therefore, initiatives are needed urgently to determine and implement a proper breeding policy to prevent the erosion of these valuable native genetic resources.
Avian influenza in FP
The poultry industry of Bangladesh experienced highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) for the first time early in 2007, which spread all over the country. The National Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza at Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI) diagnosed and confirmed the presence of the H5 sub-type. Gene sequencing of 25 isolates in 2007 and 2008 demonstrated the highest similarities of viruses to those of Kuwait, Mongolia, Russia and Afghanistan. Since Bangladesh had no poultry trade link with these countries, it was thought that migratory birds might be responsible for the initial introduction of HPAI in Bangladesh (Alam et al., Reference ALAM, GIASUDDIN, SAMAD and TAIMUR2010). It has been estimated that the total loss due to the outbreak of HPAI was BDT 42,000 million against the total gross investment of BDT 130,000 million in the poultry sector (Amin et al., Reference AMIN, KHAN and ISLAM2008). The National Committee for Protection of Poultry Industry indicated that the investment increased further to BDT 150,000 million in 2011 when, according to the local branch of the World's Poultry Science Association, a loss of about BDT 2,187 million was incurred.
Birds of SMEs and industrial sectors were affected seriously and about 50% of the farms were closed during the outbreak period of 2007-2008 and 30% during 2010-2011. The devastation due to AI also affected FP. It was revealed that, in most of the cases, mortality in backyard chicken flocks preceded an outbreak in commercial farms (Alam et al., Reference ALAM, GIASUDDIN, SAMAD and TAIMUR2010). The FP in different regions of the country has been killed not only because they were affected by the HPAI virus but also due to the government's policy for culling birds within a one kilometer radius of affected farms. This resulted in the mass slaughter of FP irrespective of their apparent level of health and caused farmers much anguish. Additionally, farmers were not happy with the compensation package offered by the government. The culling policy that was in force by the government during the outbreak period was later abandoned due to severe criticism from various quarters. There are no accurate statistics with regard to the economic losses to family poultry, but an estimate showed that losses for backyard poultry and eggs stood at BDT 5200 million (Amin et al., Reference AMIN, KHAN and ISLAM2008). This figure increases further if the losses incurred by commercial broiler and layer farms with a capacity of 100 birds or less are included.
Threats from HPAI still prevail as migratory birds come to Bangladesh every year during winter. Interestingly, in 2011, an outbreak occurred during widely fluctuating temperatures during the day and night, unlike previous years, in which it was a disease associated with winter. This situation has lead to a general belief that either the circulating virus belongs to a mutant strain or one other than H5N1. However, FP are said to be the victims and are also often held responsible in most of the cases for the outbreaks in commercial/industrial flocks.
Consumers’ preference and attitudes to FP
Consumers, nowadays, prefer native poultry to broilers and spent hens. This is because they taste good, are leaner, have better pigmentation and are suitable for preparing different dishes. Habituation is another important factor in consumers’ choice of eggs and meat of indigenous FP. The prices of indigenous poultry are always higher (approximately double) and the egg price, in general, is similar to commercial eggs although the size of the former is relatively smaller, except for duck eggs. Broiler meat is particularly preferred by children because of its tenderness. A section of urban people are gradually showing a negative tendency towards the consumption of eggs and meat from farms producing commercial chickens because they believe that the feeds of such chickens are manufactured with antibiotic and non-antibiotic growth promoters indiscriminately, even with some harmful ingredients that may affect their health in the long run. FP, particularly free range chickens and ducks, which have very little access to industrial feeds, are considered safe in this respect and therefore deemed to be a more reliable choice.
Research gaps in FP production
Research in poultry science seldom takes account of FP in Bangladesh, although the national planners are showing interest for economic development of the resources of poor farmers through poultry production. Some efforts were made in the past to increase the productivity of backyard poultry either by crossbreeding, improved feed or the distribution of high yielding birds/crossbreeds to the farmers, as mentioned above. The activities of donor agencies have been limited either to improving the productivity of indigenous poultry or in providing training to officers/farmers. These development efforts gave little opportunity to carry out research in a planned way. Since the flock size of family poultry should be 100 or less, according to INFPD, extensive research works are needed to examine the sustainability of such endeavours for birds of different genetic groups including the indigenous stocks. Traditional husbandry practices allow the birds to scavenge and derive much of their feed from natural sources. Keeping such practices undisturbed, research is needed with supplementary feeding of improved diets to augment production. Although projects implemented so far by donor agencies, particularly PLDP, SLDP and DANIDA, had already addressed this issue, the cost effectiveness of such interventions at the farmers’ doorstep has to be dealt with more extensively. Various crossbreeds and native stocks may be considered for this purpose, but the most challenging would probably be the rearing of small flocks of commercial broiler and layer strains as FP. It is not possible to rear these birds under scavenging or semi-scavenging systems, and so rearing of such birds in confinement is a must. Since flock sizes are small and investment is more per bird than the scavenging or semi-scavenging birds, it becomes a losing concern unless scientific intervention is made (Kawsar et al., Reference KAWSAR, CHOWDHURY, ISLAM, RAHA, HOSSAIN and HUQUE2011). It becomes necessary to determine minimum flock size for FP, irrespective of type of bird that would generate income for resource poor farmers. Since commercial feeds are costly, the development of cost effective diets formulated with indigenous feed ingredients as supplements to scavenging feeds would be helpful for FP keepers considering both scavenging chickens and ducks. Any sort of intervention in diet and/or management must be justified over the cost of production. So, research with benefit cost ratios is of prime importance. The government, donor agencies, universities and research institutes should identify researchable problems in FP production and make efforts to solve them on a priority basis and ensure sustainability.
FP production - an aimless practise?
In spite of the tremendous potential of FP production in Bangladesh, the current production system may be or will remain aimless if the subject is ignored by the policy makers of the country. Rearing birds solely in the backyard, as has been practiced for centuries, will not make a significant contribution to income generation and poverty reduction, as discussed by various researchers. On the other hand, increasing flock size irrespective of genetic group (improved or unimproved) will require more feed and improved management which may not be well suited for resource-poor farmers in a free range system. The more birds the farmer rears, the greater the requirement for money to facilitate production in confinement. As the density of the poultry population increases, more sophisticated disease control measures will be required. Improved breeds need good housing and feed to meet their genetic productive performance. A farmer will not be able to manage, say a flock of 50 birds or more in his/her homestead with existing resources under scavenging systems. Thus a potential sector of FP could be aimless unless some low interest or interest-free capital is provided and scientific interventions are made.
Biosecurity for FP is very weak currently. Along with the AI already mentioned, Newcastle disease, Fowl pox, Fowl cholera, Duck Cholera and Duck Plague are common in village poultry, and low-cost local vaccines are produced and distributed inadequately. As a result, farmers are not in a position to utilise a more ‘scientific’ production approach for FP. Under the prevailing system, the farmers are helpless in most cases, and they often fail to combat disasters. Dolberg (Reference DOLBERG2010), from his long experience in working with livestock and poultry in developing countries including Bangladesh, clearly suggested that the primary challenge is institutional. According to him, most government livestock departments do not reach out to poor rural households with small flocks. Since this is true, how will FP production ever yield a fruitful result in terms of poverty reduction out of its traditional current activities?
How FP production could be made meaningful
First of all, we have to decide whether or not we should encourage FP production in Bangladesh. If the answer is yes, then the current production system has to be improved. There are a number of ways to make FP production meaningful in a developing country like Bangladesh. The policy makers of the government should consider the following points detailed below.
conservation of native germplasm and development of a local breed or variety of chicken
An improved breed or crossbred chicken needs to be developed, incorporating native germ-plasm suitable for family poultry production in a flock of 100 or less. A team of scientists involving geneticists, breeders, nutritionists, management specialists and health experts needs to be brought together targeting either meat, egg or both under scavenging, semi-scavenging or confinement systems of rearing. In the mean time, India has developed a number of crossbreeds and synthetic hybrids with modified genetic and economic profiles for the rural family and small-scale poultry farming (Khan, Reference KHAN2008; Sasidhar, Reference SASIDHAR2009).
duck production
Duck production should be practiced more scientifically in selected districts of Bangladesh where natural feed resources are abundant. The coastal regions, north and north-eastern districts of the country have adequate scavengeable feed resources that are very suitable for rearing ducks. While ducks are well suited in some locations of the country, the major limitation for the improvement of FP is to improve their supplemental diets (what they eat in addition to that they derive from scavenging sources) and the application of vaccines against two major diseases, Duck Plague and Duck Cholera.
improvement in the nutritional status of fp
A number of reports have repeatedly confirmed that FP is multiplying in the country by acclimatising with a lower plane of nutrition. The fact that scavenging diets are normally deficient in energy and protein but high in fibre demands an improvement in their diets, either as free choice of individual ingredients or the supplementary feeding of nutritionally balanced diets. Alders and Pym (Reference ALDERS and PYM2009), while comparing between village and commercial chickens suggested that the lower productivity of village chickens could be improved by better nutrition. Sarkar and Golam (Reference SARKAR and GOLAM2009) concluded that improved management interventions in the form of early weaning, creep feeding of chicks and supplemental feeding of hens during the incubation period, have the capacity to impact significantly on profitability and income generation.
educating and training farmers
FP keepers should have a minimum educational qualification of JSC (junior school certificate) so that they can be trained properly on various aspects of poultry science from time to time. Chowdhury et al. (Reference CHOWDHURY, LATIF and DEBNATH1993) recommended at least a secondary level of education for trainees in backyard poultry rearing. Alam et al. (Reference ALAM, AKTERUZZAMAN, HOSSAIN and SHARMIN2008) emphasised the need for training duck farmers to allow technology dissemination for improved income generation. Hossain et al. (Reference HOSSAIN, ALI, RAHMAN and APU2008) found a significant but negative correlation of education and farm size with economic losses due to localised flooding. Training, education and extension in FP are channels for spreading information regarding new technologies among FP farmers (Kassal, Reference KASSAL1998; Guèye, Reference GUÈYE2003). Begum et al. (Reference BEGUM, BUYSSE, ALAM and HUYLENBROECKCK2010) showed that the level of education and training the farmer receives are two of the most important factors contributing to the variations in efficiency. Now the challenge is to conduct all sorts of training effectively. Training needs must be assessed properly before conducting training for the FP farmers.
interventions and technical support for fp
Since FP production is a low input/low output practice, advisory and consultancy services for farmers would be free of charge. Unfortunately, extension services for FP in Bangladesh are suffering from inherent and/or institutional weakness. Guèye (Reference GUÈYE2009) indicated that extension services for FP in many developing countries are not effective even though they exist. The government can take the necessary steps through its Department of Livestock Services (DLS) to recruit an adequate number of extension officers with poultry science backgrounds, to provide the necessary free services to the farmers. Henning et al. (Reference HENNING, PYM, HLA, KWAN and MEER2007) has shown that the small-scale FP production, with some technical support, can add more income to families within existing resources. Chowdhury et al. (Reference CHOWDHURY, AHMED and HAMID2006) were able to improve the productivity of native chickens significantly, making interventions only in the quantity and quality of the feed supply. Alders and Pym (Reference ALDERS and PYM2009) strongly suggested that appropriate intervention focusing on the factors limiting productivity of the different production systems must be tailored according to country and local conditions. Ochieng et al. (Reference OCHIENG, OWUOR and BEBE2010), in a study with indigenous chickens in Western Kenya, demonstrated that a full management package (comprising feed supplementation, vaccination, housing, chick rearing and brooding) can improve the productivity of indigenous chickens. Kawsar et al. (Reference KAWSAR, CHOWDHURY, ISLAM, RAHA, HOSSAIN and HUQUE2011) observed that commercial broilers with flock sizes of 100, 200 and 300 were only profitable when management intervention was made in the farmers’ households.
production and availability of poultry vaccines
Efforts are needed to manufacture vaccines locally as per requirement for the major poultry diseases, and must be available at all DLS offices so that farmers can collect them at a low cost. Alders and Pym (Reference ALDERS and PYM2009) identified Newcastle disease as one of the major constraints to the production of village chickens, a finding which was supported by Guèye (Reference GUÈYE2009). Small-scale duck keepers in Bangladesh are constantly demanding a regular supply of vaccines for protecting their birds against Duck Plague and Duck Cholera which are prevalent in Bangladesh. Reduction in mortality through vaccinations conducted by trained community vaccinators (Alders and Pym, Reference ALDERS and PYM2009) is a must to strengthen preventive measures for FP. It may be mentioned here that the FP producers will never be able to buy expensive, imported vaccines.
biosecurity and veterinary services
Veterinary services should be strengthened for the diagnosis of diseases in case of an outbreak, although maintenance of strict biosecurity should be the main target of preventing diseases. Chowdhury (Reference CHOWDHURY1984) explained the negative effects of treatment of poultry diseases, and clearly justified that ‘a gram of prevention is better than a kilogram of cure’. Achieving sustainable improvements in biosecurity in small-scale poultry production systems is more complex than in large scale commercial farms. Strict maintenance of biosecurity measures, both in farms and at wet markets, was emphasised by Alam et al. (Reference ALAM, GIASUDDIN, SAMAD and TAIMUR2010). Biosecurity in FP is more challenging in Bangladesh and therefore needs to move from conventional practices, taking lessons from recent outbreak of avian influenza. Farmers should be trained properly and their activities in relation to farm operation should be monitored regularly.
development of intra and inter-institutional linkages
There is a need for strong collaborations among different relevant organizations, both national and international, to strengthen FP production in Bangladesh. The local WPSA branch and the INFPD, for example, can play a significant role in this respect. Their current activities are appreciable, but there remains ample scope to further strengthen environmental and biosecurity points. A survey conducted recently by Saleque (Reference SALEQUE2010) indicated that about 87% of the INFPD members were in favour of building a strong link between WPSA and INFPD in the interest of sustainable FP and a wider dissemination of associated activities throughout the world. There is a need to work out alternative ways of reaching out to the poor rather than relying on the traditional methods practiced in the past, and this is why a strong collaboration and linkages must be established among universities, research institutes, government organizations, WPSA, INFPD etc. to accelerate research and development in the FP sector. It should also be considered that the majority of the small holders are socio-economically constrained to utilise management technology appropriately (Ochieng et al., Reference OCHIENG, OWUOR and BEBE2010).
availability of institutional credit for fp farmers
It would be beneficial to provide FP farmers with institutional credit at a low interest rate, however previous experience in this regard is not good and full of criticisms. Credit systems for FP farmers should not turn into a business, similar to the industrial sector. What is needed at the present time is to develop a farmer-friendly system in contrast to the financial exploitation of small-scale farmers. National planners can take initiatives in this regard and provide necessary instructions to banks and other financial institutions accordingly.
Recent e-conferences of INFPD in collaboration with FAO
The first e-conference of INFPD was held recently on the theme ‘Opportunities of poultry breeding programmes for family production in developing countries: The bird for the poor.’ The conference was jointly organised by the INFPD and the Livestock Production Systems Branch of the FAO Animal Production and Health Division, and took place during January and February 2011. This was the first of a series of conferences on FP development emphasising poultry breed development for FP producers. The conference discussed the following topics of interest:
1. What types and how many birds are required by FP producers?
2. What are the organisational structures for the existing and suggested breeding programmes?
3. What strategies of multiplication and distribution networks can be adopted?
4. What marketing is appropriate for breeding stocks?
5. What conservation is appropriate for existing genetic resources?
A summary and conclusion of the conference were made based on 123 e-mail messages from 168 participants from 30 countries. It has been stated that the contribution from India was the largest (17%) followed by Malawi (15%) and Bangladesh (10%). These were followed by Kenya and Nigeria, with each 6% of the contributions, and Cameroon and Indonesia with 5%. The majority of the contributors were from African nations (52%) while other countries included Canada, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Iran, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and India. Among the participants, 98% were scientists from universities and research institutes, while advisers/consultants and extension workers constituted just 2% of the total participants. The following points have emerged from the conclusions of the e-conference (Singh et al., Reference SINGH, FOTSA and THIEME2011):
1. The perceptions and priorities of FP keepers must be analysed before deciding the type of production system to use (traditional scavenging backyard, semi-intensive or small-scale intensive), the type of bird to use and the number in a flock.
2. Indigenous/native/local chickens should be the bird of choice, as they are well suited to traditional scavenging systems because it ensures self-sustainability and fulfils various values attached to it, including conservation. Improved native breeds or crosses of native with exotic breeds were suggested for farmers who are in a position to provide additional management requirements, particularly supplementary feeding and proper housing. The problem of non-sustainability of F1 crosses was emphasised and a mechanism for ensuring sustainability of such birds needs to be evolved.
3. It was suggested that egg and meat producing chickens should be considered separately, since dual purpose birds have not done well under traditional scavenging systems.
4. The proportion of scavenged feed should be substantial for the birds to be reared under semi-scavenging systems. Birds that have low input costs and improved productivity are recommended for this system and therefore crosses between native and exotic breeds have been preferred. The problem of sustainability with such cross breeds should be overcome by developing local multiplication and distribution infrastructural facilities.
5. The small-scale intensive system was recommended for raising commercial strains of broilers and layers. Regular and timely supply of DOCs, good feeding, over all good management practices and proper marketing are essential for the success of this system.
6. Motivating producers for semi-intensive or small-scale intensive poultry production systems can help with livelihood security, because the basic scavenging model of production has shown its limits for poverty alleviation and the system is being held responsible for the recent outbreak of emerging poultry diseases.
7. Development of suitable germ-plasm for scavenging and semi-scavenging FP was emphasised. Government weakness with regard to organizational structures was held responsible, and needed rectification. The responsibility to identify, characterise and improve native stocks should be given to researchers. The involvement of local farmers is necessary to identify potential traits in a well organised breeding programme. Joint ventures may be undertaken in countries with limited facilities by sharing infrastructural facilities and a common gene pool. Once a breed is developed, it can be developed in a number of countries with similar conditions which share common objectives.
8. Development of suitable germplasm should be followed by its multiplication through a network made of Government poultry hatcheries and a distribution network through workers from poultry development projects and NGOs. In addition, the involvement of local farmers’ cooperatives was emphasised. This entire arrangement may help in overcoming the problem of sustainability with cross-breeds on completion of the donor funded projects.
9. Encouragement is needed for specialisation in different components of production in the indigenous chicken value chain. Enterprises should be organised in such a way that products from one enterprise constitute an input for the other at a higher level. The principal benefit will be the creation of participatory, practical and sustainable indigenous chicken enterprises.
10. Research organisations, NGOs, private sector stakeholders and members from local farming communities should build a working committee to develop and implement a systematic strategy for the sustainable conservation of local breeds and their follow up. A national conservatory of local populations of chicken for in-situ conservation of breeds, and a molecular biology laboratory for ex-situ conservation through gene bank and cryopreservation of genetic material and semen should be established in each country.
As a follow up to this, the second e-conference was held at the start of the following year, in 2012, on the theme ‘Family poultry interactions with other production systems (forestry, tree crops, annual crops, large animals, fisheries, etc): Nutritional opportunities and constraints.’ During the conference the topics of climate change and the future availability of the scavengeable feed resource base (SFRB) for FP; recent developments in assessing feed resources for FP production including the scavengeable feed resource base (SFRB); nutritional opportunities and constraints of integrating FP with other production systems (forestry, tree crops, annual crops, large animals, fisheries, etc); opportunities and constraints of using commercial feed for FP and developing and promoting improved FP feeding systems were discussed.
Participants from 20 countries contributed 47 messages and five short papers to express their views and opinions on the theme. The largest number of contributions came from Bangladesh followed by South Africa and India. By synthesising different views expressed by the participants, Chowdhury et al. (Reference CHOWDHURY, LUSEBA and THIEME2012) reported the following conclusions and recommendations: Strengthening research that includes studying the possible impacts of climate change on FP production and ways of mitigating its consequences; updating current methods of assessment of SFRB; supplementary feeding of nutritionally balanced diets depending on location, seasons, and availability of SFRB; increased use of household wastes and crop residues in feeding practices; utilisation of local feed resources as much as possible as this would result in better production and improved profitability; assessment of nutritional needs of different types of FP; development of feed formula locally, based on nutritional needs; practicing creep feeding of chicks and supplementary feeding of growing chicks and layer birds to achieve higher productivity; determination of cost-benefit ratios (BCR) of feeding commercial/industrial/home-made balanced feed to ensure sustainability; training FP farmers regarding feeds, nutrition and related poultry husbandry practices to achieve higher outputs; conducting adequate FP research with respect to nutritional aspects, feeds and feed management; holding local, regional and international conferences in developing countries to determine future development strategies; and planning all development models cautiously and executing them in collaboration with local consultants/experts so that the FP farmers can benefit from the technologies that are generated by research.
Scientists from various countries have given their thoughts on development modules to make FP production meaningful. Referring to Bangladesh's conditions, many of the suggestions and recommendations need implementation. This could be achieved by INFPD in collaboration with scientists and government of the country in a systematic way. Lessons learned and experience gathered from previous FP projects should be taken into account while implementing any new development project.
The future of FP production in Bangladesh
There is no reason to believe that rural poverty will be alleviated by 2030, although expectation is that it should be diminishing. FP production will continue to provide livelihoods for poor rural households on one hand and supply lean meat on the other, similar to smallholder poultry development, including commercial birds, as reported by Mcleod et al. (Reference MCLEOD, THIEME and MACK2009). Alders and Pym (Reference ALDERS and PYM2009) pointed out that the village poultry are able to contribute to eight targets of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). These targets are: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empowerment of women, reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability and developing a global partnership for development. Achieving such targets by 2015 are now the world's main development challenges.
The Bangladesh Country Investment Plan (CIP) for Agriculture, Food Security and Nutrition has recently prepared draft of a set of 12 investment programmes. The proposed focus and priority interventions within the livestock development programme include strengthening animal health services, increasing capacity, training at farmer level, feed processing and cattle and buffalo genetic improvement activities. The indicative cost is US$ 624 million and the main institutions and development partners are the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, FAO, JICA, IFAD, WB and DANIDA. During the presentation and discussion of CIP at the Bangladesh Agricultural University in December 2010, proposals were made to include at least small-scale poultry development as one of the priority areas in livestock sector. This CIP may be linked with the Sixth Five Year Plan (SFYP) of the Government in the future.
Having said the above, the future of FP production in Bangladesh will depend on how serious the national planners in the livestock sector are in its development. If the National Poultry Development Policy permits family poultry production activities in a well organised way and if scientists and the relevant sectors of the government are committed to FP development, the future is bright and should not affect the growing commercial broiler and layer industry that are in operation with high yielding strains of chicken. Fortunately, the present government has a commitment to make ‘one home one farm’ and this concept suits FP as well as mixed agricultural farming systems. Future actions of the national planners will largely determine the fate of FP production in Bangladesh and whether or not such a system would be accommodated scientifically in the ‘one home one farm’ concept as committed by the present government.
Conclusions
Family poultry work as a ‘standby generator’ in the poultry sector of Bangladesh particularly at times of disasters like a fall in demand of beef and mutton. The recent outbreak of anthrax in the country has diverted the attention of consumers to poultry meat particularly, from native stocks. Chickens and ducks of indigenous origin are priced higher, nearly double what the exotic meat type birds cost, for example, broilers. It may be concluded that family poultry production in Bangladesh with indigenous or commercial breeds or hybrids in fewer numbers, could be made meaningful if monetary benefits supersede the cost of production. The important outcome is profitability: not the profitability per farm or per bird, but the profitability per unit of money invested – in terms of the cost-benefit ratio. Ignorance of this fact by national planners and the absence of proper policy may lead FP in Bangladesh on an aimless journey. Research needs to gain momentum to explore the profitability of FP in Bangladesh. The WPSA Bangladesh branch, in collaboration with local scientists and the INFPD, can accelerate research and development with FP as a part of its mandatory activities: ‘education, organization and research.’ FP production with commercial hybrids is more challenging in comparison with indigenous stock because of small flock sizes that need technical support and a well planned, biosecured environment for production.
