Cyrene’s cemeteries, with their rock-cut tombs and built funerary monuments, are among the most evocative landscapes in the entire Mediterranean region. This book makes available the author’s doctoral research on the southern necropolis of Cyrene over the longue durée. The work sets out to study Cyrenean society through this area’s rock-cut and built tombs from the Archaic period to Late Antiquity, while contextualising them in the city’s wider funerary culture. The author’s decision to publish in light of ongoing urban development on the site – especially as he is no longer working in academia – is particularly commendable.
Chapter 1 outlines the core aim of the book: to explore Cyrenean society over time through the southern necropolis as a key locus of social display. The chapter also provides a simplified classification of tomb types, derived from Cherstich’s own survey (expanded in Chapter 4). The author achieved approximately 75 percent coverage, identifying 567 structures – estimated to represent about half of the tombs visible in the 1950s. This significant loss highlights the urgency and importance of documenting and analysing an increasingly threatened landscape.
Most existing research on Cyrene’s tombs has focused on analysis of architecture over burial ritual. These architectural approaches have produced a series of inexact (e.g., that of Cassels Reference Cassels1955) and problematic typologies, such as Stucchi’s (Reference Stucchi1975), which relies too heavily on façades but excludes interior details, or Thorn’s (Reference Thorn2005; Thorn and Thorn Reference Thorn and Thorn2009), which is complex and unwieldy. These existing typologies are often too theoretical and make little attempt to integrate tombs into discussions of Cyrene’s social history and, moreover, the sparse data available provide limited capacity for spatial analysis.
Chapter 2 presents the theoretical framework, noting that Classical archaeology has often under-theorised death and burial. Tombs actively convey social meanings rather than simply reflecting the past. At Cyrene, funerary architecture dominates the evidence, as many burials were looted and inscriptions are rare; architectural façades probably served as the main form of communal commemoration. The chapter discusses key issues around quantification, highlighting energy expenditure as a tentative indicator of status – while the poor may sometimes ‘spend big’, they cannot always be expected to afford or imitate the wealthy with large tombs, so energy-based approaches can sometimes be a useful indicator of status. Cherstich cautions against overreliance on statistics due to the fragmentary nature of the record and instead outlines five analytical approaches: typology; spatial organisation; display; chronology and context; and demography, but not all are explored in depth later.
Chapter 3 briefly summarises the methods employed during the author’s survey and recording campaigns in the field, while Chapter 4 introduces a new, more reliable typology and chronology of tombs, improving on Thorn’s earlier system. Establishing firm dates is challenging due to limited and inconclusive artefact evidence and poor preservation of freestanding architecture. Broadly, the Archaic to early Classical period (seventh to early fifth centuries BCE) saw the emergence of monumental tombs such as tumuli with orthostat circles and portico tombs with monumental façades. Chamber tombs with sarcophagi appear in the early fifth century BCE, alongside bothroi (offering pits) indicating increased exterior display. Semi-iconic busts (or half-figures), probably representing goddesses, develop in the fifth century, and are often linked to sarcophagi; these coexist with iconic female busts, particularly from the fourth century onwards, when bases start to commemorate the names of both male and female individuals, underlining that the busts are rarely if ever portraits. From the mid-fifth century BCE into the Hellenistic period, open-air, rock-cut sarcophagi within walled precincts become common, possibly precursors to larger courtyard tombs. Cist burials also first appear in the early fifth century.
The late Classical and Hellenistic periods are grouped together due to the similarities in funerary culture that make distinguishing features difficult to assign to either era. Key trends include the rise of rock-cut chamber tombs, alongside built tombs in various forms such as rectangular and circular types. Both rock-cut and built tombs commonly incorporate loculi.
The Roman period, spanning roughly the first century BCE to Late Antiquity, is marked by few new rock-cut tombs, probably due to the abundance of existing ones. This era sees an increase in busts, which probably continued until the Severan period when they become rarer, and perhaps the introduction of Alexandrian-style loculi. Sarcophagi, mostly Attic in origin, appear alongside arcosolia – sometimes combined with or imitating sarcophagi within rock-cut tombs. Ossuary niches may reflect secondary burial practices seen elsewhere, while the insertion of cists after arcosolia are filled demonstrates long-term tomb reuse. Establishing firm chronologies remains challenging due to extensive reuse. Roman-period built monuments include temple-tombs and isodomic tombs. While there is some evidence of increased focus on tomb interiors, continuity in façade treatment – especially with bust niches – complicates this trend. Overall, the chapter adopts a cautious approach to chronology, replacing Thorn’s complex typology with a clearer system and grounding dating on more secure criteria rather than subjective notions of stylistic ‘degeneration’. These considerations allow Cherstich to contribute many new insights, only some of which I can comment upon in the rest of this review.
The next four chapters discuss a broad range of questions related to the development of the southern necropolis on a period-by-period basis. Chapter 5 focuses on the Archaic to early Classical periods. It starts by considering the suburban zones in and around the sanctuary of Demeter, which was dug by the University of Urbino team. These areas formed part of the city’s broader sacred belt, where cult and burial practices probably occurred alongside one another. The southern necropolis has a low overall capacity in this period and, even when all known tombs are combined, the number of burials remains in the low hundreds over a century. This represents only a fraction of Cyrene’s population, presumably the elite claiming visibility through monumental burial. There is little evidence for non-monumental graves before the sixth century BCE – possibly due to lost markers or the difficulty of dating simple cist graves – but this absence may also reflect a lack of a hoplite class and corresponding public display. From the sixth century, changes in burial practices may signal social reforms, such as those of Damonax, who expanded the citizen body and introduced new forms of commemoration. Tumuli, earlier used for individual burials and perhaps to mark elite landholding, gave way to rock-cut tombs in the mid-fifth century. Cyrene may have pioneered this form in the Greek world, potentially under Persian or even Egyptian influence. However, this trend also fits broader aristocratic preferences across the eastern Mediterranean. Unlike tumuli, rock-cut tombs housed multiple burials and emphasised collective identity. Their varied designs reflect the cultural diversity of Cyrene’s population and challenge the notion of a uniform Greek funerary tradition. These tombs were often located near roads, quarries and sanctuaries, underscoring the integration of burial, movement and religious practice. In this period, we see the first signs of the more elaborate funerary culture that would emerge in the Classical and Hellenistic eras.
Chapter 6 addresses the phase from the late fourth century BCE to the end of the Hellenistic period, which is represented by the greatest volume of surviving material in the southern necropolis. The chapter opens with a discussion of the sacred landscape noting that, while there were no new additions to the Wadi Belghadir sanctuary, the rural sanctuary of Dionysus underwent significant transformation through the introduction of rock-cut architecture and statuary. Cherstich connects these developments with socio-political developments and particularly the need for conspicuous display during Cyrene’s turbulent political scene in the late Classical period, followed by a Ptolemaic dynasty-backed oligarchy; yet how far we can map this narrative history onto the funerary record remains, in my view, unclear. The funerary landscape becomes increasingly crowded, with tomb placement shaped by the natural topography. Rock-cut tombs appear wherever the cliffs permit, especially along the Balagrae road and in the el-Baggara area; other areas are more commonly filled with built tombs. Differentiating between late Classical and early Hellenistic tombs proves methodologically difficult, due to the continuity of certain tomb types and the uncertain dating of some sarcophagi. Evidence suggests that previously unavailable land – perhaps sacred or under royal ownership – may have been reclaimed for funerary use. The co-location of tombs and sanctuaries challenges traditional notions of religious pollution, indicating that boundaries between sacred and funerary space were more porous than often assumed.
Cherstich offers an insightful economic reading of tomb construction, noting that rock-cut tombs produced excess building material that probably entered a broader stone economy. However, the beneficiaries of this surplus (tomb owners? lessees?) remain unclear. Variability in tomb size and type (e.g., isodomic vs circular built tombs) points to significant differences in cost, though ultimate expense was also dependent on the presence of a quarry within the funerary plot to provide building material. The proliferation of elaborate tombs may reflect the growing wealth of sub-aristocratic classes during this period. Competing models of class and funerary display are proposed, with suggestions that democratic elites at Cyrene sought visibility in the necropolis – even if the evidence for this remains open to question. Importantly, not all individuals were commemorated with inscriptions; the number of loculi far exceeds that of named individuals. Cherstich posits that Hellenistic funerary traditions may express resistance to Ptolemaic authority, allowing the disempowered to assert identity through monumentality. These developments may also reflect the rise of collective burial practices as many tombs provided significant burial capacity. The chapter’s attention to multi-phase tombs is welcome, but the implications of this phenomenon are not fully explored, reflecting the constraints of a doctoral thesis.
Another valuable section contrasts Cyrenean and Alexandrian tombs, challenging previous comparisons. The differing treatment of courts and façades – Cyrenean façades are visible from the outside, while Alexandrian tombs are oriented inwards – points to contrasting architectural and experiential priorities. Whereas Alexandrian tombs exhibit a stronger focus on interior space, Cyrenean examples maintain a more externalised visual logic. Cherstich argues persuasively for a bidirectional flow of influence between the two cities, suggesting that Cyrene may have influenced Alexandria in the early phases, with Alexandrian influence becoming more pronounced only in the mid- to late Hellenistic period.
Chapter 7 examines the period from the first century BCE to the third century CE. This period is not marked by a sharp break with earlier practices, and relatively few tombs can be confidently dated to these centuries. Nonetheless, Cherstich extracts several important observations about the evolving necropolis. One key development is the continued transformation of the Demeter sanctuary. Meanwhile, evidence suggests that previously available burial land along the westward track was reclaimed – potentially sanctuary estate land – rendering it unavailable for further funerary use. This interpretation is supported by the presence of a bilingual inscription and the absence of Roman tombs in that area. Most Roman-period activity in the necropolis is characterised by the reuse of earlier tombs, with few new tombs constructed. Where changes occur, they are often subtle and incorporated into pre-existing structures. One notable innovation is the increased presence of portrait busts in niches, which replace earlier half-figure depictions. These busts demonstrate a local engagement with Roman commemorative traditions, enabling communities to ‘update’ existing tombs while aligning with broader imperial customs. However, it remains difficult to correlate external busts or niches with specific internal burials, and it is evident that not all individuals were commemorated in this way.
The chapter includes an extended statistical analysis of the relationship between niches for busts on the front of tombs and various burial types on their interiors – loculi, sepulchres (enlarged rectangular loculi) and arcosolia. The analysis confirms that several divergent traditions were probably used at Cyrene at the same time: one tradition favoured bust niches on the exterior and loculi/sepulchres on the interior, while another emphasises richer interiors through elaborately decorated arcosolia, but few busts. These two concurrent trends are particularly visible from the second to third centuries CE, when a small number of more elaborately constructed tombs appear, often featuring arcosolia but seemingly lacking busts, but arcosolia continue to be used into Late Antiquity, when busts become less popular. This phase also shows both reused, older tombs and newly-built, ornate tombs in simultaneous use. The increased prevalence of loculi suggests rising demand for burial space, whereas arcosolia tombs, which emphasise display and interiority, seem designed for a select audience who could enter the tomb, indicating differing social intentions behind their construction.
The Roman period also sees the introduction of ‘foreign’ elements into the necropolis, such as imported sarcophagi and cinerary urns (only one of these has been securely identified), indicative of wider imperial networks, with Alexandria playing a particularly influential role. Cherstich attempts to construct a chronological framework for this period: reuse dominates before the Jewish Revolt (115–17 CE), followed by an apparent increase in new construction. Some of these later tombs allowed elites to assert status through elaborate and costly interiors. Yet it remains unclear how ostentatious display operated in such interior-focused architecture – who could view the interiors? – raising questions about the archaeological visibility of status.
This chapter also raises, but ultimately leaves unresolved, the issue of collective burial practices (e.g., in the so-called Kinnisieh, a large catacomb-like hypogeum) and, more broadly, the evidence for cultural change during this period. Additionally, Jewish populations are notably absent from the material record at Cyrene in this period, in contrast to other sites in the region such as Tocra, where Jewish funerary presence is more clearly identifiable. It is worth noting that the chapter is somewhat disorganised in its structure, and some of the argumentation is therefore hard to follow, but there is much rich discussion, nevertheless.
Chapter 8 covers the later third century CE to the end of antiquity, offering a largely pessimistic view of the Late Antique economy in Cyrenaica. This assessment may reflect the limitations of recent fieldwork in the region, and the interpretation of certain types of evidence might warrant reconsideration. For instance, the presence of workshops encroaching on public and private spaces in the urban fabric of Cyrene is cited as a sign of decline, but it could equally indicate industrial activity and a degree of prosperity.
Returning to the southern necropolis, statues were smashed in the sanctuary of Demeter, yet many of these were honorific rather than cult images. The author raises the possibility that this destruction may reflect personal or political conflicts rather than religious iconoclasm, complicating traditional narratives of Late Antique religious transformation. The chapter notes a striking scarcity of securely-dated, late burials in the region. One notable exception is the Demetrias tomb, and another example includes a reused tomb featuring carved monograms or crosses, suggestive of Christian reuse, and later adapted for wine production. This layered use of the same space offers valuable insight into the evolving functions of funerary monuments over time. Other tombs also show signs of repurposing for production, but the evidence is less robust. To explain the lack of visible burials, the author suggests several possibilities. One is that continuity in burial practices from earlier periods may make Late Antique graves hard to distinguish archaeologically. Another is the adoption of new practices such as intramural burial or burial ad sanctos. However, we should note that elsewhere these forms were usually practised by a minority and are unlikely to fully account for the absence of tombs in the southern necropolis of Cyrene. The chapter also discusses the presence of farms and cisterns in the necropolis, which the author attributes to Late Antiquity. However, the dating of these features remains uncertain, and it is possible that they belong to earlier phases of occupation.
Chapter 9 places Cyrene’s funerary landscape within the broader context of rock-cut tomb traditions across Cyrenaica and the eastern and central Mediterranean. The cemeteries of Cyrene stand out as the largest and best preserved in central Cyrenaica, while other burial sites – especially in the chora – are characterised as mere ‘reflections’ of urban practices (311). This may suggest a diffusion of elite funerary customs from the city into surrounding villages over time. In contrast, western Cyrenaica shows a different pattern. During the Classical and Hellenistic periods, burial practices there were more modest, lacking the monumental display seen at Cyrene. Under Roman rule, however, Cyrenaican burial practices shifted towards trends observed across the broader Roman world.
The origins of Cyrene’s rock-cut tombs remain uncertain. Although scholars have long debated whether Egyptian or Persian influences played a greater role, the chapter emphasises that Cyrenean tomb architecture developed in parallel with other Mediterranean traditions. While there were shared elements, local innovation and expression played a significant role in shaping Cyrene’s distinct funerary forms. The chapter also revisits the question of loculi, but this is somewhat confusing as it is only clarified late in the discussion (329) that Cyrenean loculi are cut perpendicular to rooms they are in, which differ from the better-known Roman catacomb type, which are cut parallel. Instead, Cyrene’s loculi are linked to broader patterns of connectivity in the Ptolemaic world and its neighbouring regions. Furthermore, arcosolia, are presented as innovations that emerged within an eastern Mediterranean context. The chapter concludes by summarising the book’s major arguments and situating Cyrene’s funerary culture within wider patterns of Mediterranean burial practice. The rest of the book (349–464) comprises a substantial gazetteer of the tombs.
Minor typographical and formatting issues are present in the volume. On p. 38, the phrase ‘off course’ is used for ‘of course’; a similar repetition occurs on p. 77 and elsewhere. Additionally, the layout on p. 257 is disrupted by a table that splits the text awkwardly, affecting the flow and readability. And on a practical note: placing images at the end of each chapter makes them difficult to consult and reduces the book’s usability.
Overall, the book raises important questions about how we can move from detailed architectural analysis to addressing broader social issues within their historical context: why do tomb styles differ radically between periods? Why can we see the funerary archaeology of some periods so much more clearly than others? And what does this tell us about the societies that created these tombs? While not every aspect of the analysis will convince all readers, the work remains a significant contribution to the field. It also prompts reconsideration of the concept of ‘cemeteries’ in antiquity, highlighting evidence for a variety of activities occurring in suburban areas, including farming and sanctuaries, beyond mere burial grounds.
