Introduction
The Orchidaceae, commonly known as orchids, is one of the largest flowering plant families; to date, there are c. 704 accepted Orchidaceae genera (POWO 2024) and 30 474 accepted Orchidaceae species (Hassler Reference Hassler2024). Members of this family are distributed across every continent worldwide, adapting to a wide array of habitats, including areas extending northward past the Arctic Circle (Johnston Reference Johnston2022). Due to their various uses (e.g., ornamental plants, medicinal products and food), orchids are widely harvested and traded, both legally and illegally. These activities range from sustainable practices to those that threaten their continued existence (Fay Reference Fay2015). The unsustainable harvesting of wild orchids involved in trade poses a significant threat to their survival (Hinsley et al. Reference Hinsley, De Boer, Fay, Gale, Gardiner and Gunasekara2018, Ticktin et al. Reference Ticktin, Mondragón, Lopez-Toledo, Dutra-Elliott, Aguirre-León and Hernández-Apolinar2020). Currently, 1192 of the 2013 Orchidaceae species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (more than 59%) are threatened by unsustainable harvesting activities (IUCN 2024); however, there are no details available on whether these orchids are extracted for local, national, regional or international trade, or whether such activities are governed by Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulations.
At the international level, wildlife trade is regulated through CITES. Since orchids are among the plant families most threatened by illegal trade (Hinsley et al. Reference Hinsley, De Boer, Fay, Gale, Gardiner and Gunasekara2018) and include many species that appear similar to each other (Clemente-Munoz et al., Reference Clemente-Munoz, Pridgeon and Suarez2009), they are all listed under CITES and constitute c. 70% of such listed species (Hinsley Reference Hinsley2016, Hinsley et al. Reference Hinsley, De Boer, Fay, Gale, Gardiner and Gunasekara2018), most of them under CITES Appendix II, which allows international trade with permits and non-detrimental findings. Certain species, particularly within the pan-Asian genus Paphiopedilum, are included under CITES Appendix I, imposing a complete prohibition on international trade for primarily commercial purposes. Furthermore, CITES implementation has steered the global orchid trade towards artificially propagated sources (Hinsley et al. Reference Hinsley, Nuno, Ridout, John and Roberts2017). However, challenges persist with low compliance, and CITES has far from halted illegal trade in wild-harvested orchids (Phelps & Webb Reference Phelps and Webb2015).
Online markets are becoming increasingly important for the trade of orchids (Hinsley Reference Hinsley2016), offering sellers benefits such as anonymity (Grabosky Reference Grabosky2013) and the ability to reach a large number of potential customers (van Heck Reference van Heck2021), which leads to more efficient sales and market expansion (Lavorgna Reference Lavorgna2014). A major international social media platform has revealed orchid trading activities spanning all geographical regions, with up to 46% of transactions involving wild-collected plants (Hinsley et al. Reference Hinsley, Lee, Harrison and Roberts2016). The sale of wild orchids online raises conservation concerns, as some sellers use these platforms to bypass CITES regulations (Hinsley et al. Reference Hinsley, Nuno, Ridout, John and Roberts2017).
Indonesia is the centre of global orchid diversity, with an estimated 5594 species (Wati et al. Reference Wati, Astuti and Cahyaningsih2023). Orchids are traded in Indonesia both legally and illegally (Hinsley & Roberts Reference Hinsley and Roberts2018), including through online markets (Hinsley et al. Reference Hinsley, Lee, Harrison and Roberts2016). CITES was ratified by Indonesia in 1978 (Republic of Indonesia 1978), and currently 28 orchid species are legally protected from wild collection for trade (Republic of Indonesia 2018a). These protected orchids and species listed under the CITES appendices can only be traded from artificially propagated sources (Republic of Indonesia 1999) with specified permits and certification issued by the government (Republic of Indonesia 2005). According to these regulations, the protected species and those listed under CITES Appendix I can only be traded if they are at least second-generation offspring (F2), whereas those listed under Appendix II can come from first-generation offspring (F1). However, compliance with these regulations has not been measured.
The trade of orchids within a country’s borders, though often larger in scale than cross-border trade, has received less attention (Phelps & Webb Reference Phelps and Webb2015). No study has focused on the internet market of Indonesian orchids, especially those that are protected under Indonesian law. Therefore, in the present study, we assessed the extent of trade of nationally protected orchids in Indonesian-language online markets. The objectives were: (1) to provide a list of protected orchid species traded in Indonesian e-commerce markets; (2) to determine the forms of orchids offered for sale, the e-commerce sites that sell these in Indonesia and their price ranges; (3) to identify the geographical distribution of the sellers; and (4) to assess the compliance of the trade with Indonesian regulations. The results of our study are intended to help law enforcement track significant players and locations involved in this trade. Additionally, they can support conservationists and policymakers in identifying traded species that may require further conservation efforts and protection.
Materials and methods
Study species
The correct binomial names of 28 orchids protected under Indonesian regulation (Republic of Indonesia 2018a) and their taxonomic authority names were assigned according to the Plants of the World Online (POWO 2024; https://powo.science.kew.org/). Furthermore, their conservation status and international trade protection were checked against the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2024) and CITES appendices (https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php), respectively. We also documented their most recent geographical distribution at the provincial level according to protologues, POWO (2024) and virtual herbaria in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF.org 2024).
Ethical clearance
Prior to conducting the online search and data collection, we requested ethical clearance from the National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia through its website (https://klirensetik.brin.go.id/). Our research did not require ethical clearance because it did not involve humans or animals, address social, political, cultural or humanitarian issues, use prohibited or dangerous chemical materials or involve foreign researchers or institutions.
Online search and data collection
The trade data were searched in the top five most visited e-commerce markets in Indonesia (Ahdiat Reference Ahdiat2023): Shopee (https://shopee.co.id), Tokopedia (https://www.tokopedia.com), Lazada (https://www.lazada.co.id), Blibli (https://www.blibli.com) and Bukalapak (https://www.bukalapak.com). The searches were conducted during 1–30 March 2024 using the scientific names of each orchid species as keywords. Although all of the markets are in Indonesian language, we did not use the local names of each species as keywords. Some species have no local names, while others have different local names depending on the region where they are found. We performed a one-time search, with each market visited only once. For each advertisement, we searched for the product description and recorded the following information: type of plant materials offered (mature individuals, seedlings, seeds or tissue culture bottles), source of the materials (wild or propagation), the number of sold and available stock materials, permit or certification from the government, location of sellers (provincial level) and price. Not all information was available in the product descriptions; however, the type of plant materials offered, the number of sold materials and the location of the seller were consistently provided. In addition, none of the advertisements on Blibli provided data on available stock; therefore, we set the values to 1 in these instances for potential trade valuation purposes.
Data analysis
We analysed the data by summarizing the total orchid species offered by the sellers and the total number of sellers in each province. The trade volume for each species was calculated based on the number of individual plants sold. We also calculated the trade value for each species by multiplying the number of individual plants sold by their price and then summarizing the values across all e-commerce markets. The same analysis was conducted for the available stock materials to inform the potential market value of each species.
Results
Species traded
The 28 Indonesian protected orchids were from five genera: Paphiopedilum had the most species (15), followed by Phalaenopsis (6 species), Paraphalaenopsis (4 species), Vanda (2 species) and Cymbidium (1 species). All of the species of Paphiopedilum were listed under CITES Appendix I, while the other species were listed under Appendix II. Thirteen species were in the Critically Endangered (CR; 8 species) and Endangered (EN; 5 species) categories, whereas the other 15 species had not been assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria. Twenty-one of the species were recorded to be endemic to Indonesia. Kalimantan Barat Province harboured the highest number of protected orchids at five species, followed by Aceh and Sumatera Barat at four species each.
We recorded 1294 advertisements that offered protected orchids on the five most visited Indonesian e-commerce markets. Tokopedia hosted most (84.62%) of the advertisements, followed by Shopee (11.13%), Blibli (3.4%), Bukalapak (0.62%) and Lazada (0.23%). Phalaenopsis bellina (Rchb.f.) Christenson was the protected orchid with the highest number of advertisements (255), followed by Phalaenopsis gigantea J.J.Sm. (206) and Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum J.J.Sm. (156; Fig. 1a). Paphiopedilum glanduliferum (Blume) Stein had the lowest number, with only one advertisement. We could not find advertisements for Paphiopedilum nataschae Braem, Paphiopedilum robinsonianum Cavestro, Paphiopedilum violascens Schltr. and Paphiopedilum wilhelminae L.O.Williams.
Number of advertisements of the Indonesian protected orchids in the top five most visited e-commerce markets: (a) number of advertisements for each species; (b) type of plant materials offered; and (c) source of the materials. All advertisements were searched in March 2024.
Most of the advertisements (76.82%) offered the orchids in the form of mature individuals, and only 20.56%, 0.85% and 1.78% of them offered seedlings, seeds and tissue culture bottles, respectively (Fig. 1b). Almost half (48.69%) of the advertisements mentioned wild populations as the source of their orchids, and only 3.4% declared that their orchids were from propagated sources (Fig. 1c). The rest of the advertisements did not give any information about the source of their orchids.
Geographical pattern of sellers
Of the 789 sellers recorded in our study, 93.16% were based in Java. The other sellers were based in Bali (21 sellers), Sumatera (17 sellers), Kalimantan (12 sellers) and Sulawesi (4 sellers). At the provincial level, the capital city of Jakarta had the highest number of sellers (309), followed by Jawa Barat (184 sellers), Jawa Timur (170 sellers) and Jawa Tengah (41 sellers; Fig. 2).
Map of Indonesia showing the provinces where the sellers were located as determined in this research.
Trade volume and value
We recorded 3882 orchid individuals that were sold during 1–30 March 2024, with a total trade value of IDR 262 129 387 or USD16 911 (Table 1). Furthermore, there were 2 831 688 individuals reported to be available in stock by sellers, with a total potential trade value of more than IDR 231 billion or USD 14.9 million. Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum was the top-traded species in terms of volume, with a total of 1785 plants sold and more than 2.5 million plants available in stock. In terms of the price, Paraphalaenopsis denevei (J.J.Sm.) A.D.Hawkes was ranked as the most expensive species, being traded for up to IDR 25 551 500 (USD 1648) for one mature individual, and with 17 plants sold (Table 1). The cheapest species was Vanda sumatrana Schltr., which was offered at IDR 6325 (USD 0.41) per plant.
List of Indonesian protected orchids and information on their endemicity, global conservation status according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and trade volume and value. Indonesian endemic species are coded as 1 and non-endemics are coded as 0. For the IUCN Red List categories, CR, EN and NE are Critically Endangered, Endangered and Not Evaluated, respectively. Trade information for the following four species was not available: Paphiopedilum nataschae Braem, Paphiopedilum robinsonianum Cavestro, Paphiopedilum violascens Schltr. and Paphiopedilum wilhelminae L.O.Williams. The potential trade values are in USD (exchange rate of USD 1 = IDR 15 500).
Regulation compliance
None of the sellers mentioned the required permits and certification to sell the protected orchids in their advertisements. Furthermore, 11 out of 15 protected Paphiopedilum species listed under Appendix I of CITES were recorded as being offered for sale. All of these traded Paphiopedilum species are threatened with extinction, including eight species classified as CR and three species classified as EN. There were a total of 2147 Paphiopedilum plants that had been sold and more than 25 million plants available in stock. While 91 advertisements mentioned wild populations as the source of their offered Paphiopedilum, none of the sellers offered the plants from propagated sources, especially from second-generation offspring (F2), as required by the regulations.
Discussion
Our research revealed that 24 protected orchid species in Indonesia were traded on online markets. However, trade information for the following four protected Paphiopedilum species was unavailable: P. nataschae, P. robinsonianum, P. violascens and P. wilhelminae. The first two species, endemic to Sulawesi Island (Cavestro Reference Cavestro2014, Braem Reference Braem2015), have not yet been assessed for their conservation status according to the IUCN Red List criteria. Conversely, P. violascens and P. wilhelminae are EN orchids endemic to New Guinea (Cribb & Cribb Reference Cribb and Cribb1986, de Vogel et al. Reference de Vogel, Vermeulen and Schuiteman2024). Although advertisements for P. violascens and P. wilhelminae were not found during our research, both species were reported to be illegally harvested by commercial sellers for export in regional and international trade (Rankou Reference Rankou2015a, Reference Rankou2015b). Indeed, both species were being offered at the time of writing by international online orchid seller Paph Paradise (https://paphparadise.com/), priced at USD 65 per plant for P. violascens and USD 45 per plant for P. wilhelminae.
All e-commerce markets, as outlined in their guidelines, forbid the sale of protected animal and plant species. Nevertheless, it seems that these markets do not effectively enforce this prohibition, allowing sellers to post advertisements without any consequences. We found that almost 85% of the advertisements for protected orchids were hosted by Tokopedia. This percentage significantly exceeded those found on Shopee (11.13%), despite Shopee being recognized as the most visited e-commerce market in Indonesia, with c. 157.9 million visitors per month in 2023 (Ahdiat Reference Ahdiat2023). Tokopedia has surpassed Shopee in terms of the services provided to merchants (Putri & Setiono Reference Putri and Setiono2023), potentially influencing orchid sellers’ preference for posting their advertisements on Tokopedia. Furthermore, the lower preference of orchid sellers to place their advertisements on Shopee may be attributed to its strong association with being a fashion e-commerce site. In 2020, Shopee held the highest level of top-of-mind awareness among e-commerce markets in the fashion sector (Herianto Reference Herianto2023).
Phalaenopsis bellina was the most prominently featured orchid in our research, appearing in 255 advertisements, or over 19% of the total. This species is endemic to Borneo (Christenson & Whitten Reference Christenson and Whitten1995) and is widely traded due to its brightly coloured and fragrant flowers (Christenson & Whitten Reference Christenson and Whitten1995, Mus et al. Reference Mus, Gansau, Kumar and Rusdi2020). Furthermore, because of its distinctive fragrance, P. bellina is frequently used as a donor plant to produce new Phalaenopsis varieties with new fragrances (Chuang et al. Reference Chuang, Lee, Chang, Chen and Chen2017). Our data recorded that the species was among the most traded orchids, with a total of 848 individuals sold and 219 473 individuals available in stock (see Table 1). It was offered for as little as IDR 22 500 (USD 1.45) for its seedlings and up to IDR 1 650 070 (USD 106.46) for mature individuals.
The 789 sellers recorded in the present study were distributed across only 19 provinces in the western and central parts of Indonesia (Fig. 2). The majority were not located on islands with high orchid diversity; instead, more than 90% were located on Java. New Guinea (including Indonesian Papua and Papua New Guinea) has the highest number of orchid species with 2844 species, followed by Borneo with 1733 species and Sumatera with 1210 species, while Java has only 783 species (POWO 2024). Java is evidently a centre for the protected orchid trade in Indonesia. Our results were similar to those found regarding the geographical pattern observed in the trade of orchids through physical markets, for which were also located on Java (Santika Reference Santika2023).
Our study recorded 3882 protected orchids sold and found 2 831 688 more in stock. These figures are relatively low compared to the total national production of all orchid species, which reached 6 793 967 individuals in 2022 (BPS – Statistics Indonesia 2023). Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum was the most traded species in terms of volume. It was offered for as low as IDR 5000 (USD 0.32) for its seed pods and as high as IDR 500 000 (USD 32.26) for mature individuals. Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum is an EN orchid endemic to Java (POWO 2024). It is currently threatened by extensive collection for commercial use in both domestic and international trade, as well as by habitat degradation and conversion into plantations, agricultural fields and human settlements (Rankou & O’Sullivan Reference Rankou and O’Sullivan2015). Our research further indicates the danger posed by harvesting, as it shows that 478 (26.8%) of the plants sold were from wild populations and none were from cultivated sources.
None of the recorded sellers in the present study declared having a permit for the orchids they offered. In Indonesia, in order to legally sell protected orchids sellers must apply for a permit from the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry. During the permit submission process, sellers are required to provide a notary company act, a proposal and annual trade plan, a trade business licence (Surat Izin Usaha Perdagangan (SIUP)), a domicile licence (Surat Izin Tempat Usaha (SITU)), an investigation report and recommendation letter from the Natural Resource Conservation Center (Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam (BKSDA)) and a declaration regarding the source of the orchids’ parent plants (Republic of Indonesia 2018b). Regarding the last requirement, we found that almost half of the advertisements mentioned wild populations as the source of their orchids, with only a few declaring that their orchids were from propagated sources. Indonesian laws require that the traded orchids come from propagated sources, especially from second-generation offspring (F2) for species listed under Appendix I of CITES and from F1 for those listed under Appendix II of CITES. One possibility is that the lengthy administrative process impedes sellers applying for permits, which leads to orchid trade outside of the regulations. A simpler permit application process that does not compromise orchid populations could encourage sellers to engage in orchid management within a legal framework.
Our findings reveal that sellers are not following Indonesian trade regulations. The species in question are being traded illegally; despite their official protected status, their practical protection remains inadequate. The Ministry of Environment and Forestry of Indonesia, which is responsible for issuing permits and ensuring legal wildlife trade, has established a cyber patrol team to monitor online trade of protected animals and plants. However, most of the cases that the team has investigated involve protected animals, with enforcement for protected plants remaining limited (Direktorat Pencegahan dan Pengamanan Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan 2023). Key factors contributing to the insufficient enforcement against illegal wildlife activities include a shortage of trained personnel, limited funding, poor stakeholder coordination and inadequate infrastructure (Direktorat Jenderal Penegakan Hukum Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan 2023).
Conclusion
We find that trade in nationally protected orchids on Indonesian-language online markets is extensive; 24 protected orchid species in Indonesia were being illegally traded online, with 11 of these considered as threatened on the IUCN Red List, probably heightening their risk of extinction in the wild. Java plays a central role in the illegal trade of protected orchids in Indonesia. Our findings should help enforcement agencies in Indonesia to identify key players and areas involved in this trade and aid conservationists and policymakers to determine which species are being traded and so might require further conservation measures. There is an urgent need to reassess the conservation status of all such traded species, particularly those endemic to Indonesia, in order to better understand their actual risk of extinction and to effectively prioritize conservation efforts.
Acknowledgements
The reviewers and the associate editor made helpful suggestions for improvement.
Author contributions
YMH, RU and UH: Data collection, Investigation. IR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Formal analyses, Writing, Visualization. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Financial support
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency or commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Competing interests
The authors declare none.
Ethical standards
Not applicable.
Data sharing
Data that are not included in the paper are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
